SAT-1

Each sentence below has one or two blanks, each blank
indicating that something has been omitted. Beneath
the sentence are five words or sets of words labeled A
through E. Choose the word or set of words that, when
inserted in the sentence, best fits the meaning of the
sentence as a whole.

Each sentence below has one or two blanks, each blank
indicating that something has been omitted. Beneath
the sentence are five words or sets of words labeled A
through E. Choose the word or set of words that, when
inserted in the sentence, best fits the meaning of the
sentence as a whole.

Each sentence below has one or two blanks, each blank
indicating that something has been omitted. Beneath
the sentence are five words or sets of words labeled A
through E. Choose the word or set of words that, when
inserted in the sentence, best fits the meaning of the
sentence as a whole.

Each sentence below has one or two blanks, each blank
indicating that something has been omitted. Beneath
the sentence are five words or sets of words labeled A
through E. Choose the word or set of words that, when
inserted in the sentence, best fits the meaning of the
sentence as a whole.

Each sentence below has one or two blanks, each blank
indicating that something has been omitted. Beneath
the sentence are five words or sets of words labeled A
through E. Choose the word or set of words that, when
inserted in the sentence, best fits the meaning of the
sentence as a whole.

Each sentence below has one or two blanks, each blank
indicating that something has been omitted. Beneath
the sentence are five words or sets of words labeled A
through E. Choose the word or set of words that, when
inserted in the sentence, best fits the meaning of the
sentence as a whole.

Each sentence below has one or two blanks, each blank
indicating that something has been omitted. Beneath
the sentence are five words or sets of words labeled A
through E. Choose the word or set of words that, when
inserted in the sentence, best fits the meaning of the
sentence as a whole.

Each sentence below has one or two blanks, each blank
indicating that something has been omitted. Beneath
the sentence are five words or sets of words labeled A
through E. Choose the word or set of words that, when
inserted in the sentence, best fits the meaning of the
sentence as a whole.

Passage 1
Food has always been considered one of the most salient
markers of cultural traditions. When I was a small child,
food was the only thing that helped identify my family as
Filipino American. We ate pansit lug-lug (a noodle dish)
and my father put patis (salty fish sauce) 5 on everything.
However, even this connection lessened as I grew older.
As my parents became more acculturated, we ate less
typically Filipino food. When I was twelve, my mother
took cooking classes and learned to make French and
10 Italian dishes. When I was in high school, we ate chicken
marsala and shrimp fra diablo more often than Filipino
dishes like pansit lug-lug.
Passage 2
Jean Anthelme Brillat-Savarin—who in 1825 confidently
announced, “Tell me what you eat, and I will tell
15 you who you are”—would have no trouble describing
cultural identities of the United States. Our food reveals
us as tolerant adventurers who do not feel constrained
by tradition. We “play with our food” far more readily
than we preserve the culinary rules of our varied ancestors.
20 Americans have no single national cuisine. What unites
American eaters culturally is how we eat, not what we
eat. As eaters, Americans mingle the culinary traditions
of many regions and cultures. We are multiethnic eaters.

Passage 1
Food has always been considered one of the most salient
markers of cultural traditions. When I was a small child,
food was the only thing that helped identify my family as
Filipino American. We ate pansit lug-lug (a noodle dish)
and my father put patis (salty fish sauce) 5 on everything.
However, even this connection lessened as I grew older.
As my parents became more acculturated, we ate less
typically Filipino food. When I was twelve, my mother
took cooking classes and learned to make French and
10 Italian dishes. When I was in high school, we ate chicken
marsala and shrimp fra diablo more often than Filipino
dishes like pansit lug-lug.
Passage 2
Jean Anthelme Brillat-Savarin—who in 1825 confidently
announced, “Tell me what you eat, and I will tell
15 you who you are”—would have no trouble describing
cultural identities of the United States. Our food reveals
us as tolerant adventurers who do not feel constrained
by tradition. We “play with our food” far more readily
than we preserve the culinary rules of our varied ancestors.
20 Americans have no single national cuisine. What unites
American eaters culturally is how we eat, not what we
eat. As eaters, Americans mingle the culinary traditions
of many regions and cultures. We are multiethnic eaters.

Passage 1
Food has always been considered one of the most salient
markers of cultural traditions. When I was a small child,
food was the only thing that helped identify my family as
Filipino American. We ate pansit lug-lug (a noodle dish)
and my father put patis (salty fish sauce) 5 on everything.
However, even this connection lessened as I grew older.
As my parents became more acculturated, we ate less
typically Filipino food. When I was twelve, my mother
took cooking classes and learned to make French and
10 Italian dishes. When I was in high school, we ate chicken
marsala and shrimp fra diablo more often than Filipino
dishes like pansit lug-lug.
Passage 2
Jean Anthelme Brillat-Savarin—who in 1825 confidently
announced, “Tell me what you eat, and I will tell
15 you who you are”—would have no trouble describing
cultural identities of the United States. Our food reveals
us as tolerant adventurers who do not feel constrained
by tradition. We “play with our food” far more readily
than we preserve the culinary rules of our varied ancestors.
20 Americans have no single national cuisine. What unites
American eaters culturally is how we eat, not what we
eat. As eaters, Americans mingle the culinary traditions
of many regions and cultures. We are multiethnic eaters.

Passage 1
Food has always been considered one of the most salient
markers of cultural traditions. When I was a small child,
food was the only thing that helped identify my family as
Filipino American. We ate pansit lug-lug (a noodle dish)
and my father put patis (salty fish sauce) 5 on everything.
However, even this connection lessened as I grew older.
As my parents became more acculturated, we ate less
typically Filipino food. When I was twelve, my mother
took cooking classes and learned to make French and
10 Italian dishes. When I was in high school, we ate chicken
marsala and shrimp fra diablo more often than Filipino
dishes like pansit lug-lug.
Passage 2
Jean Anthelme Brillat-Savarin—who in 1825 confidently
announced, “Tell me what you eat, and I will tell
15 you who you are”—would have no trouble describing
cultural identities of the United States. Our food reveals
us as tolerant adventurers who do not feel constrained
by tradition. We “play with our food” far more readily
than we preserve the culinary rules of our varied ancestors.
20 Americans have no single national cuisine. What unites
American eaters culturally is how we eat, not what we
eat. As eaters, Americans mingle the culinary traditions
of many regions and cultures. We are multiethnic eaters.

Passage 1
Food has always been considered one of the most salient
markers of cultural traditions. When I was a small child,
food was the only thing that helped identify my family as
Filipino American. We ate pansit lug-lug (a noodle dish)
and my father put patis (salty fish sauce) 5 on everything.
However, even this connection lessened as I grew older.
As my parents became more acculturated, we ate less
typically Filipino food. When I was twelve, my mother
took cooking classes and learned to make French and
10 Italian dishes. When I was in high school, we ate chicken
marsala and shrimp fra diablo more often than Filipino
dishes like pansit lug-lug.
Passage 2
Jean Anthelme Brillat-Savarin—who in 1825 confidently
announced, “Tell me what you eat, and I will tell
15 you who you are”—would have no trouble describing
cultural identities of the United States. Our food reveals
us as tolerant adventurers who do not feel constrained
by tradition. We “play with our food” far more readily
than we preserve the culinary rules of our varied ancestors.
20 Americans have no single national cuisine. What unites
American eaters culturally is how we eat, not what we
eat. As eaters, Americans mingle the culinary traditions
of many regions and cultures. We are multiethnic eaters.

Passage 1
Generations of science-fiction movies have conditioned
us to consider bug-eyed monsters, large-brained intellectual
humanoids, and other rather sophisticated extraterrestrial
creatures as typical examples of life outside Earth. The
reality, however, is that 5 finding any kind of life at all, even
something as simple as bacteria, would be one of the most
exciting discoveries ever made.
The consensus within the scientific community seems to
be that we eventually will find not only life in other parts of
10 the galaxy but also intelligent and technologically advanced
life. I have to say that I disagree. While I believe we will
find other forms of life in other solar systems (if not in
our own), I also feel it is extremely unlikely that a large
number of advanced technological civilizations are out
15 there, waiting to be discovered. The most succinct support
for my view comes from Nobel laureate physicist
Enrico Fermi, the man who ran the first nuclear reaction
ever controlled by human beings. Confronted at a 1950
luncheon with scientific arguments for the ubiquity of
20 technologically advanced civilizations, he supposedly
said, “So where is everybody?”
This so-called Fermi Paradox embodies a simple logic.
Human beings have had modern science only a few hundred
years, and already we have moved into space. It is not
25 hard to imagine that in a few hundred more years we will
be a starfaring people, colonizing other systems. Fermi’s
argument maintains that it is extremely unlikely that many
other civilizations discovered science at exactly the same
time we did. Had they acquired science even a thousand
30 years earlier than we, they now could be so much more
advanced that they would already be colonizing our solar
system.
If, on the other hand, they are a thousand years behind
us, we will likely arrive at their home planet before they
35 even begin sending us radio signals. Technological
advances build upon each other, increasing technological
abilities faster than most people anticipate. Imagine, for
example, how astounded even a great seventeenth-century
scientist like Isaac Newton would be by our current global
40 communication system, were he alive today. Where are
those highly developed extraterrestrial civilizations so dear
to the hearts of science-fiction writers? Their existence is
far from a foregone conclusion.
Passage 2
Although posed in the most casual of circumstances,
45 the Fermi Paradox has reverberated through the decades
and has at times threatened to destroy the credibility
of those scientists seriously engaged in the Search for
Extraterrestrial Intelligence (SETI) research program.
One possible answer to Fermi’s question (“If there are
50 extraterrestrials, where are they?”) is that extraterrestrials
have in fact often visited Earth, and continue to do so.
This is the answer of those who believe in the existence
of unidentified flying objects, or UFO’s. But few scientists,
even those engaged in SETI, take the UFO claims
55 seriously. “You won’t find anyone around here who
believes in UFO’s,” says Frank Drake, a well-known
SETI scientist. If one discounts the UFO claims, yet still
believes that there are many technological civilizations in
the galaxy, why have they not visited us? Drake’s answer
60 is straightforward: “High-speed interstellar travel is so
demanding of resources and so hazardous that intelligent
civilizations don’t attempt it.” And why should they
attempt it, when radio communication can supply all
the information they might want?
65 At first glance, Drake’s argument seems very persuasive.
The distances between stars are truly immense.
To get from Earth to the nearest star and back, traveling
at 99 percent of the speed of light, would take 8 years.
And SETI researchers have shown that, to accelerate
70 a spacecraft to such a speed, to bring it to a stop, and
to repeat the process in the reverse direction, would
take almost unimaginable amounts of energy.
Astronomer Ben Zuckerman challenges Drake’s
notion that technological beings would be satisfied with
75 radio communication. “Drake’s implicit assumption is
that the only thing we’re going to care about is intelligent
life. But what if we have an interest in simpler
life-forms? If you turn the picture around and you have
some advanced extraterrestrials looking at the Earth, until
80 the last hundred years there was no evidence of intelligent
life but for billions of years before that they could have
deduced that this was a very unusual world and that there
were probably living creatures on it. They would have had
billions of years to come investigate.” Zuckerman contends
85 that the reason extraterrestrials haven’t visited us is that so
few exist.

Passage 1
Generations of science-fiction movies have conditioned
us to consider bug-eyed monsters, large-brained intellectual
humanoids, and other rather sophisticated extraterrestrial
creatures as typical examples of life outside Earth. The
reality, however, is that 5 finding any kind of life at all, even
something as simple as bacteria, would be one of the most
exciting discoveries ever made.
The consensus within the scientific community seems to
be that we eventually will find not only life in other parts of
10 the galaxy but also intelligent and technologically advanced
life. I have to say that I disagree. While I believe we will
find other forms of life in other solar systems (if not in
our own), I also feel it is extremely unlikely that a large
number of advanced technological civilizations are out
15 there, waiting to be discovered. The most succinct support
for my view comes from Nobel laureate physicist
Enrico Fermi, the man who ran the first nuclear reaction
ever controlled by human beings. Confronted at a 1950
luncheon with scientific arguments for the ubiquity of
20 technologically advanced civilizations, he supposedly
said, “So where is everybody?”
This so-called Fermi Paradox embodies a simple logic.
Human beings have had modern science only a few hundred
years, and already we have moved into space. It is not
25 hard to imagine that in a few hundred more years we will
be a starfaring people, colonizing other systems. Fermi’s
argument maintains that it is extremely unlikely that many
other civilizations discovered science at exactly the same
time we did. Had they acquired science even a thousand
30 years earlier than we, they now could be so much more
advanced that they would already be colonizing our solar
system.
If, on the other hand, they are a thousand years behind
us, we will likely arrive at their home planet before they
35 even begin sending us radio signals. Technological
advances build upon each other, increasing technological
abilities faster than most people anticipate. Imagine, for
example, how astounded even a great seventeenth-century
scientist like Isaac Newton would be by our current global
40 communication system, were he alive today. Where are
those highly developed extraterrestrial civilizations so dear
to the hearts of science-fiction writers? Their existence is
far from a foregone conclusion.
Passage 2
Although posed in the most casual of circumstances,
45 the Fermi Paradox has reverberated through the decades
and has at times threatened to destroy the credibility
of those scientists seriously engaged in the Search for
Extraterrestrial Intelligence (SETI) research program.
One possible answer to Fermi’s question (“If there are
50 extraterrestrials, where are they?”) is that extraterrestrials
have in fact often visited Earth, and continue to do so.
This is the answer of those who believe in the existence
of unidentified flying objects, or UFO’s. But few scientists,
even those engaged in SETI, take the UFO claims
55 seriously. “You won’t find anyone around here who
believes in UFO’s,” says Frank Drake, a well-known
SETI scientist. If one discounts the UFO claims, yet still
believes that there are many technological civilizations in
the galaxy, why have they not visited us? Drake’s answer
60 is straightforward: “High-speed interstellar travel is so
demanding of resources and so hazardous that intelligent
civilizations don’t attempt it.” And why should they
attempt it, when radio communication can supply all
the information they might want?
65 At first glance, Drake’s argument seems very persuasive.
The distances between stars are truly immense.
To get from Earth to the nearest star and back, traveling
at 99 percent of the speed of light, would take 8 years.
And SETI researchers have shown that, to accelerate
70 a spacecraft to such a speed, to bring it to a stop, and
to repeat the process in the reverse direction, would
take almost unimaginable amounts of energy.
Astronomer Ben Zuckerman challenges Drake’s
notion that technological beings would be satisfied with
75 radio communication. “Drake’s implicit assumption is
that the only thing we’re going to care about is intelligent
life. But what if we have an interest in simpler
life-forms? If you turn the picture around and you have
some advanced extraterrestrials looking at the Earth, until
80 the last hundred years there was no evidence of intelligent
life but for billions of years before that they could have
deduced that this was a very unusual world and that there
were probably living creatures on it. They would have had
billions of years to come investigate.” Zuckerman contends
85 that the reason extraterrestrials haven’t visited us is that so
few exist.

Passage 1
Generations of science-fiction movies have conditioned
us to consider bug-eyed monsters, large-brained intellectual
humanoids, and other rather sophisticated extraterrestrial
creatures as typical examples of life outside Earth. The
reality, however, is that 5 finding any kind of life at all, even
something as simple as bacteria, would be one of the most
exciting discoveries ever made.
The consensus within the scientific community seems to
be that we eventually will find not only life in other parts of
10 the galaxy but also intelligent and technologically advanced
life. I have to say that I disagree. While I believe we will
find other forms of life in other solar systems (if not in
our own), I also feel it is extremely unlikely that a large
number of advanced technological civilizations are out
15 there, waiting to be discovered. The most succinct support
for my view comes from Nobel laureate physicist
Enrico Fermi, the man who ran the first nuclear reaction
ever controlled by human beings. Confronted at a 1950
luncheon with scientific arguments for the ubiquity of
20 technologically advanced civilizations, he supposedly
said, “So where is everybody?”
This so-called Fermi Paradox embodies a simple logic.
Human beings have had modern science only a few hundred
years, and already we have moved into space. It is not
25 hard to imagine that in a few hundred more years we will
be a starfaring people, colonizing other systems. Fermi’s
argument maintains that it is extremely unlikely that many
other civilizations discovered science at exactly the same
time we did. Had they acquired science even a thousand
30 years earlier than we, they now could be so much more
advanced that they would already be colonizing our solar
system.
If, on the other hand, they are a thousand years behind
us, we will likely arrive at their home planet before they
35 even begin sending us radio signals. Technological
advances build upon each other, increasing technological
abilities faster than most people anticipate. Imagine, for
example, how astounded even a great seventeenth-century
scientist like Isaac Newton would be by our current global
40 communication system, were he alive today. Where are
those highly developed extraterrestrial civilizations so dear
to the hearts of science-fiction writers? Their existence is
far from a foregone conclusion.
Passage 2
Although posed in the most casual of circumstances,
45 the Fermi Paradox has reverberated through the decades
and has at times threatened to destroy the credibility
of those scientists seriously engaged in the Search for
Extraterrestrial Intelligence (SETI) research program.
One possible answer to Fermi’s question (“If there are
50 extraterrestrials, where are they?”) is that extraterrestrials
have in fact often visited Earth, and continue to do so.
This is the answer of those who believe in the existence
of unidentified flying objects, or UFO’s. But few scientists,
even those engaged in SETI, take the UFO claims
55 seriously. “You won’t find anyone around here who
believes in UFO’s,” says Frank Drake, a well-known
SETI scientist. If one discounts the UFO claims, yet still
believes that there are many technological civilizations in
the galaxy, why have they not visited us? Drake’s answer
60 is straightforward: “High-speed interstellar travel is so
demanding of resources and so hazardous that intelligent
civilizations don’t attempt it.” And why should they
attempt it, when radio communication can supply all
the information they might want?
65 At first glance, Drake’s argument seems very persuasive.
The distances between stars are truly immense.
To get from Earth to the nearest star and back, traveling
at 99 percent of the speed of light, would take 8 years.
And SETI researchers have shown that, to accelerate
70 a spacecraft to such a speed, to bring it to a stop, and
to repeat the process in the reverse direction, would
take almost unimaginable amounts of energy.
Astronomer Ben Zuckerman challenges Drake’s
notion that technological beings would be satisfied with
75 radio communication. “Drake’s implicit assumption is
that the only thing we’re going to care about is intelligent
life. But what if we have an interest in simpler
life-forms? If you turn the picture around and you have
some advanced extraterrestrials looking at the Earth, until
80 the last hundred years there was no evidence of intelligent
life but for billions of years before that they could have
deduced that this was a very unusual world and that there
were probably living creatures on it. They would have had
billions of years to come investigate.” Zuckerman contends
85 that the reason extraterrestrials haven’t visited us is that so
few exist.

Passage 1
Generations of science-fiction movies have conditioned
us to consider bug-eyed monsters, large-brained intellectual
humanoids, and other rather sophisticated extraterrestrial
creatures as typical examples of life outside Earth. The
reality, however, is that 5 finding any kind of life at all, even
something as simple as bacteria, would be one of the most
exciting discoveries ever made.
The consensus within the scientific community seems to
be that we eventually will find not only life in other parts of
10 the galaxy but also intelligent and technologically advanced
life. I have to say that I disagree. While I believe we will
find other forms of life in other solar systems (if not in
our own), I also feel it is extremely unlikely that a large
number of advanced technological civilizations are out
15 there, waiting to be discovered. The most succinct support
for my view comes from Nobel laureate physicist
Enrico Fermi, the man who ran the first nuclear reaction
ever controlled by human beings. Confronted at a 1950
luncheon with scientific arguments for the ubiquity of
20 technologically advanced civilizations, he supposedly
said, “So where is everybody?”
This so-called Fermi Paradox embodies a simple logic.
Human beings have had modern science only a few hundred
years, and already we have moved into space. It is not
25 hard to imagine that in a few hundred more years we will
be a starfaring people, colonizing other systems. Fermi’s
argument maintains that it is extremely unlikely that many
other civilizations discovered science at exactly the same
time we did. Had they acquired science even a thousand
30 years earlier than we, they now could be so much more
advanced that they would already be colonizing our solar
system.
If, on the other hand, they are a thousand years behind
us, we will likely arrive at their home planet before they
35 even begin sending us radio signals. Technological
advances build upon each other, increasing technological
abilities faster than most people anticipate. Imagine, for
example, how astounded even a great seventeenth-century
scientist like Isaac Newton would be by our current global
40 communication system, were he alive today. Where are
those highly developed extraterrestrial civilizations so dear
to the hearts of science-fiction writers? Their existence is
far from a foregone conclusion.
Passage 2
Although posed in the most casual of circumstances,
45 the Fermi Paradox has reverberated through the decades
and has at times threatened to destroy the credibility
of those scientists seriously engaged in the Search for
Extraterrestrial Intelligence (SETI) research program.
One possible answer to Fermi’s question (“If there are
50 extraterrestrials, where are they?”) is that extraterrestrials
have in fact often visited Earth, and continue to do so.
This is the answer of those who believe in the existence
of unidentified flying objects, or UFO’s. But few scientists,
even those engaged in SETI, take the UFO claims
55 seriously. “You won’t find anyone around here who
believes in UFO’s,” says Frank Drake, a well-known
SETI scientist. If one discounts the UFO claims, yet still
believes that there are many technological civilizations in
the galaxy, why have they not visited us? Drake’s answer
60 is straightforward: “High-speed interstellar travel is so
demanding of resources and so hazardous that intelligent
civilizations don’t attempt it.” And why should they
attempt it, when radio communication can supply all
the information they might want?
65 At first glance, Drake’s argument seems very persuasive.
The distances between stars are truly immense.
To get from Earth to the nearest star and back, traveling
at 99 percent of the speed of light, would take 8 years.
And SETI researchers have shown that, to accelerate
70 a spacecraft to such a speed, to bring it to a stop, and
to repeat the process in the reverse direction, would
take almost unimaginable amounts of energy.
Astronomer Ben Zuckerman challenges Drake’s
notion that technological beings would be satisfied with
75 radio communication. “Drake’s implicit assumption is
that the only thing we’re going to care about is intelligent
life. But what if we have an interest in simpler
life-forms? If you turn the picture around and you have
some advanced extraterrestrials looking at the Earth, until
80 the last hundred years there was no evidence of intelligent
life but for billions of years before that they could have
deduced that this was a very unusual world and that there
were probably living creatures on it. They would have had
billions of years to come investigate.” Zuckerman contends
85 that the reason extraterrestrials haven’t visited us is that so
few exist.

Passage 1
Generations of science-fiction movies have conditioned
us to consider bug-eyed monsters, large-brained intellectual
humanoids, and other rather sophisticated extraterrestrial
creatures as typical examples of life outside Earth. The
reality, however, is that 5 finding any kind of life at all, even
something as simple as bacteria, would be one of the most
exciting discoveries ever made.
The consensus within the scientific community seems to
be that we eventually will find not only life in other parts of
10 the galaxy but also intelligent and technologically advanced
life. I have to say that I disagree. While I believe we will
find other forms of life in other solar systems (if not in
our own), I also feel it is extremely unlikely that a large
number of advanced technological civilizations are out
15 there, waiting to be discovered. The most succinct support
for my view comes from Nobel laureate physicist
Enrico Fermi, the man who ran the first nuclear reaction
ever controlled by human beings. Confronted at a 1950
luncheon with scientific arguments for the ubiquity of
20 technologically advanced civilizations, he supposedly
said, “So where is everybody?”
This so-called Fermi Paradox embodies a simple logic.
Human beings have had modern science only a few hundred
years, and already we have moved into space. It is not
25 hard to imagine that in a few hundred more years we will
be a starfaring people, colonizing other systems. Fermi’s
argument maintains that it is extremely unlikely that many
other civilizations discovered science at exactly the same
time we did. Had they acquired science even a thousand
30 years earlier than we, they now could be so much more
advanced that they would already be colonizing our solar
system.
If, on the other hand, they are a thousand years behind
us, we will likely arrive at their home planet before they
35 even begin sending us radio signals. Technological
advances build upon each other, increasing technological
abilities faster than most people anticipate. Imagine, for
example, how astounded even a great seventeenth-century
scientist like Isaac Newton would be by our current global
40 communication system, were he alive today. Where are
those highly developed extraterrestrial civilizations so dear
to the hearts of science-fiction writers? Their existence is
far from a foregone conclusion.
Passage 2
Although posed in the most casual of circumstances,
45 the Fermi Paradox has reverberated through the decades
and has at times threatened to destroy the credibility
of those scientists seriously engaged in the Search for
Extraterrestrial Intelligence (SETI) research program.
One possible answer to Fermi’s question (“If there are
50 extraterrestrials, where are they?”) is that extraterrestrials
have in fact often visited Earth, and continue to do so.
This is the answer of those who believe in the existence
of unidentified flying objects, or UFO’s. But few scientists,
even those engaged in SETI, take the UFO claims
55 seriously. “You won’t find anyone around here who
believes in UFO’s,” says Frank Drake, a well-known
SETI scientist. If one discounts the UFO claims, yet still
believes that there are many technological civilizations in
the galaxy, why have they not visited us? Drake’s answer
60 is straightforward: “High-speed interstellar travel is so
demanding of resources and so hazardous that intelligent
civilizations don’t attempt it.” And why should they
attempt it, when radio communication can supply all
the information they might want?
65 At first glance, Drake’s argument seems very persuasive.
The distances between stars are truly immense.
To get from Earth to the nearest star and back, traveling
at 99 percent of the speed of light, would take 8 years.
And SETI researchers have shown that, to accelerate
70 a spacecraft to such a speed, to bring it to a stop, and
to repeat the process in the reverse direction, would
take almost unimaginable amounts of energy.
Astronomer Ben Zuckerman challenges Drake’s
notion that technological beings would be satisfied with
75 radio communication. “Drake’s implicit assumption is
that the only thing we’re going to care about is intelligent
life. But what if we have an interest in simpler
life-forms? If you turn the picture around and you have
some advanced extraterrestrials looking at the Earth, until
80 the last hundred years there was no evidence of intelligent
life but for billions of years before that they could have
deduced that this was a very unusual world and that there
were probably living creatures on it. They would have had
billions of years to come investigate.” Zuckerman contends
85 that the reason extraterrestrials haven’t visited us is that so
few exist.

Passage 1
Generations of science-fiction movies have conditioned
us to consider bug-eyed monsters, large-brained intellectual
humanoids, and other rather sophisticated extraterrestrial
creatures as typical examples of life outside Earth. The
reality, however, is that 5 finding any kind of life at all, even
something as simple as bacteria, would be one of the most
exciting discoveries ever made.
The consensus within the scientific community seems to
be that we eventually will find not only life in other parts of
10 the galaxy but also intelligent and technologically advanced
life. I have to say that I disagree. While I believe we will
find other forms of life in other solar systems (if not in
our own), I also feel it is extremely unlikely that a large
number of advanced technological civilizations are out
15 there, waiting to be discovered. The most succinct support
for my view comes from Nobel laureate physicist
Enrico Fermi, the man who ran the first nuclear reaction
ever controlled by human beings. Confronted at a 1950
luncheon with scientific arguments for the ubiquity of
20 technologically advanced civilizations, he supposedly
said, “So where is everybody?”
This so-called Fermi Paradox embodies a simple logic.
Human beings have had modern science only a few hundred
years, and already we have moved into space. It is not
25 hard to imagine that in a few hundred more years we will
be a starfaring people, colonizing other systems. Fermi’s
argument maintains that it is extremely unlikely that many
other civilizations discovered science at exactly the same
time we did. Had they acquired science even a thousand
30 years earlier than we, they now could be so much more
advanced that they would already be colonizing our solar
system.
If, on the other hand, they are a thousand years behind
us, we will likely arrive at their home planet before they
35 even begin sending us radio signals. Technological
advances build upon each other, increasing technological
abilities faster than most people anticipate. Imagine, for
example, how astounded even a great seventeenth-century
scientist like Isaac Newton would be by our current global
40 communication system, were he alive today. Where are
those highly developed extraterrestrial civilizations so dear
to the hearts of science-fiction writers? Their existence is
far from a foregone conclusion.
Passage 2
Although posed in the most casual of circumstances,
45 the Fermi Paradox has reverberated through the decades
and has at times threatened to destroy the credibility
of those scientists seriously engaged in the Search for
Extraterrestrial Intelligence (SETI) research program.
One possible answer to Fermi’s question (“If there are
50 extraterrestrials, where are they?”) is that extraterrestrials
have in fact often visited Earth, and continue to do so.
This is the answer of those who believe in the existence
of unidentified flying objects, or UFO’s. But few scientists,
even those engaged in SETI, take the UFO claims
55 seriously. “You won’t find anyone around here who
believes in UFO’s,” says Frank Drake, a well-known
SETI scientist. If one discounts the UFO claims, yet still
believes that there are many technological civilizations in
the galaxy, why have they not visited us? Drake’s answer
60 is straightforward: “High-speed interstellar travel is so
demanding of resources and so hazardous that intelligent
civilizations don’t attempt it.” And why should they
attempt it, when radio communication can supply all
the information they might want?
65 At first glance, Drake’s argument seems very persuasive.
The distances between stars are truly immense.
To get from Earth to the nearest star and back, traveling
at 99 percent of the speed of light, would take 8 years.
And SETI researchers have shown that, to accelerate
70 a spacecraft to such a speed, to bring it to a stop, and
to repeat the process in the reverse direction, would
take almost unimaginable amounts of energy.
Astronomer Ben Zuckerman challenges Drake’s
notion that technological beings would be satisfied with
75 radio communication. “Drake’s implicit assumption is
that the only thing we’re going to care about is intelligent
life. But what if we have an interest in simpler
life-forms? If you turn the picture around and you have
some advanced extraterrestrials looking at the Earth, until
80 the last hundred years there was no evidence of intelligent
life but for billions of years before that they could have
deduced that this was a very unusual world and that there
were probably living creatures on it. They would have had
billions of years to come investigate.” Zuckerman contends
85 that the reason extraterrestrials haven’t visited us is that so
few exist.

Passage 1
Generations of science-fiction movies have conditioned
us to consider bug-eyed monsters, large-brained intellectual
humanoids, and other rather sophisticated extraterrestrial
creatures as typical examples of life outside Earth. The
reality, however, is that 5 finding any kind of life at all, even
something as simple as bacteria, would be one of the most
exciting discoveries ever made.
The consensus within the scientific community seems to
be that we eventually will find not only life in other parts of
10 the galaxy but also intelligent and technologically advanced
life. I have to say that I disagree. While I believe we will
find other forms of life in other solar systems (if not in
our own), I also feel it is extremely unlikely that a large
number of advanced technological civilizations are out
15 there, waiting to be discovered. The most succinct support
for my view comes from Nobel laureate physicist
Enrico Fermi, the man who ran the first nuclear reaction
ever controlled by human beings. Confronted at a 1950
luncheon with scientific arguments for the ubiquity of
20 technologically advanced civilizations, he supposedly
said, “So where is everybody?”
This so-called Fermi Paradox embodies a simple logic.
Human beings have had modern science only a few hundred
years, and already we have moved into space. It is not
25 hard to imagine that in a few hundred more years we will
be a starfaring people, colonizing other systems. Fermi’s
argument maintains that it is extremely unlikely that many
other civilizations discovered science at exactly the same
time we did. Had they acquired science even a thousand
30 years earlier than we, they now could be so much more
advanced that they would already be colonizing our solar
system.
If, on the other hand, they are a thousand years behind
us, we will likely arrive at their home planet before they
35 even begin sending us radio signals. Technological
advances build upon each other, increasing technological
abilities faster than most people anticipate. Imagine, for
example, how astounded even a great seventeenth-century
scientist like Isaac Newton would be by our current global
40 communication system, were he alive today. Where are
those highly developed extraterrestrial civilizations so dear
to the hearts of science-fiction writers? Their existence is
far from a foregone conclusion.
Passage 2
Although posed in the most casual of circumstances,
45 the Fermi Paradox has reverberated through the decades
and has at times threatened to destroy the credibility
of those scientists seriously engaged in the Search for
Extraterrestrial Intelligence (SETI) research program.
One possible answer to Fermi’s question (“If there are
50 extraterrestrials, where are they?”) is that extraterrestrials
have in fact often visited Earth, and continue to do so.
This is the answer of those who believe in the existence
of unidentified flying objects, or UFO’s. But few scientists,
even those engaged in SETI, take the UFO claims
55 seriously. “You won’t find anyone around here who
believes in UFO’s,” says Frank Drake, a well-known
SETI scientist. If one discounts the UFO claims, yet still
believes that there are many technological civilizations in
the galaxy, why have they not visited us? Drake’s answer
60 is straightforward: “High-speed interstellar travel is so
demanding of resources and so hazardous that intelligent
civilizations don’t attempt it.” And why should they
attempt it, when radio communication can supply all
the information they might want?
65 At first glance, Drake’s argument seems very persuasive.
The distances between stars are truly immense.
To get from Earth to the nearest star and back, traveling
at 99 percent of the speed of light, would take 8 years.
And SETI researchers have shown that, to accelerate
70 a spacecraft to such a speed, to bring it to a stop, and
to repeat the process in the reverse direction, would
take almost unimaginable amounts of energy.
Astronomer Ben Zuckerman challenges Drake’s
notion that technological beings would be satisfied with
75 radio communication. “Drake’s implicit assumption is
that the only thing we’re going to care about is intelligent
life. But what if we have an interest in simpler
life-forms? If you turn the picture around and you have
some advanced extraterrestrials looking at the Earth, until
80 the last hundred years there was no evidence of intelligent
life but for billions of years before that they could have
deduced that this was a very unusual world and that there
were probably living creatures on it. They would have had
billions of years to come investigate.” Zuckerman contends
85 that the reason extraterrestrials haven’t visited us is that so
few exist.

Passage 1
Generations of science-fiction movies have conditioned
us to consider bug-eyed monsters, large-brained intellectual
humanoids, and other rather sophisticated extraterrestrial
creatures as typical examples of life outside Earth. The
reality, however, is that 5 finding any kind of life at all, even
something as simple as bacteria, would be one of the most
exciting discoveries ever made.
The consensus within the scientific community seems to
be that we eventually will find not only life in other parts of
10 the galaxy but also intelligent and technologically advanced
life. I have to say that I disagree. While I believe we will
find other forms of life in other solar systems (if not in
our own), I also feel it is extremely unlikely that a large
number of advanced technological civilizations are out
15 there, waiting to be discovered. The most succinct support
for my view comes from Nobel laureate physicist
Enrico Fermi, the man who ran the first nuclear reaction
ever controlled by human beings. Confronted at a 1950
luncheon with scientific arguments for the ubiquity of
20 technologically advanced civilizations, he supposedly
said, “So where is everybody?”
This so-called Fermi Paradox embodies a simple logic.
Human beings have had modern science only a few hundred
years, and already we have moved into space. It is not
25 hard to imagine that in a few hundred more years we will
be a starfaring people, colonizing other systems. Fermi’s
argument maintains that it is extremely unlikely that many
other civilizations discovered science at exactly the same
time we did. Had they acquired science even a thousand
30 years earlier than we, they now could be so much more
advanced that they would already be colonizing our solar
system.
If, on the other hand, they are a thousand years behind
us, we will likely arrive at their home planet before they
35 even begin sending us radio signals. Technological
advances build upon each other, increasing technological
abilities faster than most people anticipate. Imagine, for
example, how astounded even a great seventeenth-century
scientist like Isaac Newton would be by our current global
40 communication system, were he alive today. Where are
those highly developed extraterrestrial civilizations so dear
to the hearts of science-fiction writers? Their existence is
far from a foregone conclusion.
Passage 2
Although posed in the most casual of circumstances,
45 the Fermi Paradox has reverberated through the decades
and has at times threatened to destroy the credibility
of those scientists seriously engaged in the Search for
Extraterrestrial Intelligence (SETI) research program.
One possible answer to Fermi’s question (“If there are
50 extraterrestrials, where are they?”) is that extraterrestrials
have in fact often visited Earth, and continue to do so.
This is the answer of those who believe in the existence
of unidentified flying objects, or UFO’s. But few scientists,
even those engaged in SETI, take the UFO claims
55 seriously. “You won’t find anyone around here who
believes in UFO’s,” says Frank Drake, a well-known
SETI scientist. If one discounts the UFO claims, yet still
believes that there are many technological civilizations in
the galaxy, why have they not visited us? Drake’s answer
60 is straightforward: “High-speed interstellar travel is so
demanding of resources and so hazardous that intelligent
civilizations don’t attempt it.” And why should they
attempt it, when radio communication can supply all
the information they might want?
65 At first glance, Drake’s argument seems very persuasive.
The distances between stars are truly immense.
To get from Earth to the nearest star and back, traveling
at 99 percent of the speed of light, would take 8 years.
And SETI researchers have shown that, to accelerate
70 a spacecraft to such a speed, to bring it to a stop, and
to repeat the process in the reverse direction, would
take almost unimaginable amounts of energy.
Astronomer Ben Zuckerman challenges Drake’s
notion that technological beings would be satisfied with
75 radio communication. “Drake’s implicit assumption is
that the only thing we’re going to care about is intelligent
life. But what if we have an interest in simpler
life-forms? If you turn the picture around and you have
some advanced extraterrestrials looking at the Earth, until
80 the last hundred years there was no evidence of intelligent
life but for billions of years before that they could have
deduced that this was a very unusual world and that there
were probably living creatures on it. They would have had
billions of years to come investigate.” Zuckerman contends
85 that the reason extraterrestrials haven’t visited us is that so
few exist.

Passage 1
Generations of science-fiction movies have conditioned
us to consider bug-eyed monsters, large-brained intellectual
humanoids, and other rather sophisticated extraterrestrial
creatures as typical examples of life outside Earth. The
reality, however, is that 5 finding any kind of life at all, even
something as simple as bacteria, would be one of the most
exciting discoveries ever made.
The consensus within the scientific community seems to
be that we eventually will find not only life in other parts of
10 the galaxy but also intelligent and technologically advanced
life. I have to say that I disagree. While I believe we will
find other forms of life in other solar systems (if not in
our own), I also feel it is extremely unlikely that a large
number of advanced technological civilizations are out
15 there, waiting to be discovered. The most succinct support
for my view comes from Nobel laureate physicist
Enrico Fermi, the man who ran the first nuclear reaction
ever controlled by human beings. Confronted at a 1950
luncheon with scientific arguments for the ubiquity of
20 technologically advanced civilizations, he supposedly
said, “So where is everybody?”
This so-called Fermi Paradox embodies a simple logic.
Human beings have had modern science only a few hundred
years, and already we have moved into space. It is not
25 hard to imagine that in a few hundred more years we will
be a starfaring people, colonizing other systems. Fermi’s
argument maintains that it is extremely unlikely that many
other civilizations discovered science at exactly the same
time we did. Had they acquired science even a thousand
30 years earlier than we, they now could be so much more
advanced that they would already be colonizing our solar
system.
If, on the other hand, they are a thousand years behind
us, we will likely arrive at their home planet before they
35 even begin sending us radio signals. Technological
advances build upon each other, increasing technological
abilities faster than most people anticipate. Imagine, for
example, how astounded even a great seventeenth-century
scientist like Isaac Newton would be by our current global
40 communication system, were he alive today. Where are
those highly developed extraterrestrial civilizations so dear
to the hearts of science-fiction writers? Their existence is
far from a foregone conclusion.
Passage 2
Although posed in the most casual of circumstances,
45 the Fermi Paradox has reverberated through the decades
and has at times threatened to destroy the credibility
of those scientists seriously engaged in the Search for
Extraterrestrial Intelligence (SETI) research program.
One possible answer to Fermi’s question (“If there are
50 extraterrestrials, where are they?”) is that extraterrestrials
have in fact often visited Earth, and continue to do so.
This is the answer of those who believe in the existence
of unidentified flying objects, or UFO’s. But few scientists,
even those engaged in SETI, take the UFO claims
55 seriously. “You won’t find anyone around here who
believes in UFO’s,” says Frank Drake, a well-known
SETI scientist. If one discounts the UFO claims, yet still
believes that there are many technological civilizations in
the galaxy, why have they not visited us? Drake’s answer
60 is straightforward: “High-speed interstellar travel is so
demanding of resources and so hazardous that intelligent
civilizations don’t attempt it.” And why should they
attempt it, when radio communication can supply all
the information they might want?
65 At first glance, Drake’s argument seems very persuasive.
The distances between stars are truly immense.
To get from Earth to the nearest star and back, traveling
at 99 percent of the speed of light, would take 8 years.
And SETI researchers have shown that, to accelerate
70 a spacecraft to such a speed, to bring it to a stop, and
to repeat the process in the reverse direction, would
take almost unimaginable amounts of energy.
Astronomer Ben Zuckerman challenges Drake’s
notion that technological beings would be satisfied with
75 radio communication. “Drake’s implicit assumption is
that the only thing we’re going to care about is intelligent
life. But what if we have an interest in simpler
life-forms? If you turn the picture around and you have
some advanced extraterrestrials looking at the Earth, until
80 the last hundred years there was no evidence of intelligent
life but for billions of years before that they could have
deduced that this was a very unusual world and that there
were probably living creatures on it. They would have had
billions of years to come investigate.” Zuckerman contends
85 that the reason extraterrestrials haven’t visited us is that so
few exist.

Passage 1
Generations of science-fiction movies have conditioned
us to consider bug-eyed monsters, large-brained intellectual
humanoids, and other rather sophisticated extraterrestrial
creatures as typical examples of life outside Earth. The
reality, however, is that 5 finding any kind of life at all, even
something as simple as bacteria, would be one of the most
exciting discoveries ever made.
The consensus within the scientific community seems to
be that we eventually will find not only life in other parts of
10 the galaxy but also intelligent and technologically advanced
life. I have to say that I disagree. While I believe we will
find other forms of life in other solar systems (if not in
our own), I also feel it is extremely unlikely that a large
number of advanced technological civilizations are out
15 there, waiting to be discovered. The most succinct support
for my view comes from Nobel laureate physicist
Enrico Fermi, the man who ran the first nuclear reaction
ever controlled by human beings. Confronted at a 1950
luncheon with scientific arguments for the ubiquity of
20 technologically advanced civilizations, he supposedly
said, “So where is everybody?”
This so-called Fermi Paradox embodies a simple logic.
Human beings have had modern science only a few hundred
years, and already we have moved into space. It is not
25 hard to imagine that in a few hundred more years we will
be a starfaring people, colonizing other systems. Fermi’s
argument maintains that it is extremely unlikely that many
other civilizations discovered science at exactly the same
time we did. Had they acquired science even a thousand
30 years earlier than we, they now could be so much more
advanced that they would already be colonizing our solar
system.
If, on the other hand, they are a thousand years behind
us, we will likely arrive at their home planet before they
35 even begin sending us radio signals. Technological
advances build upon each other, increasing technological
abilities faster than most people anticipate. Imagine, for
example, how astounded even a great seventeenth-century
scientist like Isaac Newton would be by our current global
40 communication system, were he alive today. Where are
those highly developed extraterrestrial civilizations so dear
to the hearts of science-fiction writers? Their existence is
far from a foregone conclusion.
Passage 2
Although posed in the most casual of circumstances,
45 the Fermi Paradox has reverberated through the decades
and has at times threatened to destroy the credibility
of those scientists seriously engaged in the Search for
Extraterrestrial Intelligence (SETI) research program.
One possible answer to Fermi’s question (“If there are
50 extraterrestrials, where are they?”) is that extraterrestrials
have in fact often visited Earth, and continue to do so.
This is the answer of those who believe in the existence
of unidentified flying objects, or UFO’s. But few scientists,
even those engaged in SETI, take the UFO claims
55 seriously. “You won’t find anyone around here who
believes in UFO’s,” says Frank Drake, a well-known
SETI scientist. If one discounts the UFO claims, yet still
believes that there are many technological civilizations in
the galaxy, why have they not visited us? Drake’s answer
60 is straightforward: “High-speed interstellar travel is so
demanding of resources and so hazardous that intelligent
civilizations don’t attempt it.” And why should they
attempt it, when radio communication can supply all
the information they might want?
65 At first glance, Drake’s argument seems very persuasive.
The distances between stars are truly immense.
To get from Earth to the nearest star and back, traveling
at 99 percent of the speed of light, would take 8 years.
And SETI researchers have shown that, to accelerate
70 a spacecraft to such a speed, to bring it to a stop, and
to repeat the process in the reverse direction, would
take almost unimaginable amounts of energy.
Astronomer Ben Zuckerman challenges Drake’s
notion that technological beings would be satisfied with
75 radio communication. “Drake’s implicit assumption is
that the only thing we’re going to care about is intelligent
life. But what if we have an interest in simpler
life-forms? If you turn the picture around and you have
some advanced extraterrestrials looking at the Earth, until
80 the last hundred years there was no evidence of intelligent
life but for billions of years before that they could have
deduced that this was a very unusual world and that there
were probably living creatures on it. They would have had
billions of years to come investigate.” Zuckerman contends
85 that the reason extraterrestrials haven’t visited us is that so
few exist.

Passage 1
Generations of science-fiction movies have conditioned
us to consider bug-eyed monsters, large-brained intellectual
humanoids, and other rather sophisticated extraterrestrial
creatures as typical examples of life outside Earth. The
reality, however, is that 5 finding any kind of life at all, even
something as simple as bacteria, would be one of the most
exciting discoveries ever made.
The consensus within the scientific community seems to
be that we eventually will find not only life in other parts of
10 the galaxy but also intelligent and technologically advanced
life. I have to say that I disagree. While I believe we will
find other forms of life in other solar systems (if not in
our own), I also feel it is extremely unlikely that a large
number of advanced technological civilizations are out
15 there, waiting to be discovered. The most succinct support
for my view comes from Nobel laureate physicist
Enrico Fermi, the man who ran the first nuclear reaction
ever controlled by human beings. Confronted at a 1950
luncheon with scientific arguments for the ubiquity of
20 technologically advanced civilizations, he supposedly
said, “So where is everybody?”
This so-called Fermi Paradox embodies a simple logic.
Human beings have had modern science only a few hundred
years, and already we have moved into space. It is not
25 hard to imagine that in a few hundred more years we will
be a starfaring people, colonizing other systems. Fermi’s
argument maintains that it is extremely unlikely that many
other civilizations discovered science at exactly the same
time we did. Had they acquired science even a thousand
30 years earlier than we, they now could be so much more
advanced that they would already be colonizing our solar
system.
If, on the other hand, they are a thousand years behind
us, we will likely arrive at their home planet before they
35 even begin sending us radio signals. Technological
advances build upon each other, increasing technological
abilities faster than most people anticipate. Imagine, for
example, how astounded even a great seventeenth-century
scientist like Isaac Newton would be by our current global
40 communication system, were he alive today. Where are
those highly developed extraterrestrial civilizations so dear
to the hearts of science-fiction writers? Their existence is
far from a foregone conclusion.
Passage 2
Although posed in the most casual of circumstances,
45 the Fermi Paradox has reverberated through the decades
and has at times threatened to destroy the credibility
of those scientists seriously engaged in the Search for
Extraterrestrial Intelligence (SETI) research program.
One possible answer to Fermi’s question (“If there are
50 extraterrestrials, where are they?”) is that extraterrestrials
have in fact often visited Earth, and continue to do so.
This is the answer of those who believe in the existence
of unidentified flying objects, or UFO’s. But few scientists,
even those engaged in SETI, take the UFO claims
55 seriously. “You won’t find anyone around here who
believes in UFO’s,” says Frank Drake, a well-known
SETI scientist. If one discounts the UFO claims, yet still
believes that there are many technological civilizations in
the galaxy, why have they not visited us? Drake’s answer
60 is straightforward: “High-speed interstellar travel is so
demanding of resources and so hazardous that intelligent
civilizations don’t attempt it.” And why should they
attempt it, when radio communication can supply all
the information they might want?
65 At first glance, Drake’s argument seems very persuasive.
The distances between stars are truly immense.
To get from Earth to the nearest star and back, traveling
at 99 percent of the speed of light, would take 8 years.
And SETI researchers have shown that, to accelerate
70 a spacecraft to such a speed, to bring it to a stop, and
to repeat the process in the reverse direction, would
take almost unimaginable amounts of energy.
Astronomer Ben Zuckerman challenges Drake’s
notion that technological beings would be satisfied with
75 radio communication. “Drake’s implicit assumption is
that the only thing we’re going to care about is intelligent
life. But what if we have an interest in simpler
life-forms? If you turn the picture around and you have
some advanced extraterrestrials looking at the Earth, until
80 the last hundred years there was no evidence of intelligent
life but for billions of years before that they could have
deduced that this was a very unusual world and that there
were probably living creatures on it. They would have had
billions of years to come investigate.” Zuckerman contends
85 that the reason extraterrestrials haven’t visited us is that so
few exist.

Each sentence below has one or two blanks, each blank
indicating that something has been omitted. Beneath
the sentence are five words or sets of words labeled A
through E. Choose the word or set of words that, when
inserted in the sentence, best fits the meaning of the
sentence as a whole.

Each sentence below has one or two blanks, each blank
indicating that something has been omitted. Beneath
the sentence are five words or sets of words labeled A
through E. Choose the word or set of words that, when
inserted in the sentence, best fits the meaning of the
sentence as a whole.

Each sentence below has one or two blanks, each blank
indicating that something has been omitted. Beneath
the sentence are five words or sets of words labeled A
through E. Choose the word or set of words that, when
inserted in the sentence, best fits the meaning of the
sentence as a whole.

Each sentence below has one or two blanks, each blank
indicating that something has been omitted. Beneath
the sentence are five words or sets of words labeled A
through E. Choose the word or set of words that, when
inserted in the sentence, best fits the meaning of the
sentence as a whole.

Even then my only friends were made of paper

and ink. At school I had learned to read and write

long before the other children. Where my school

friends saw notches of ink on incomprehensible

pages, I saw light, streets, and people. Words and the

mystery of their hidden science fascinated me, and I

saw in them a key with which I could unlock a

boundless world, a safe haven from that home, those

streets, and those troubled days in which even I

could sense that only a limited fortune awaited me.

My father didn’t like to see books in the house.

There was something about them—apart from the

letters he could not decipher—that offended him.

He used to tell me that as soon as I was ten he would

send me off to work and that I’d better get rid of all

my scatterbrained ideas if I didn’t want to end up a

loser, a nobody. I used to hide my books under the

mattress and wait for him to go out or fall asleep so

that I could read. Once he caught me reading at night

and flew into a rage. He tore the book from my

hands and flung it out of the window.

“If I catch you wasting electricity again, reading

all this nonsense, you’ll be sorry.”

My father was not a miser and, despite the

hardships we suffered, whenever he could he gave me

a few coins so that I could buy myself some treats like

the other children. He was convinced that I spent

them on licorice sticks, sunflower seeds, or sweets,

but I would keep them in a coffee tin under the bed,

and when I’d collected four or five reales I’d secretly

rush out to buy myself a book.

My favorite place in the whole city was the

Sempere & Sons bookshop on Calle Santa Ana. It

smelled of old paper and dust and it was my

sanctuary, my refuge. The bookseller would let me sit

on a chair in a corner and read any book I liked to

my heart’s content. He hardly ever allowed me to pay

for the books he placed in my hands, but when he

wasn’t looking I’d leave the coins I’d managed to

collect on the counter before I left. It was only small

change—if I’d had to buy a book with that pittance, I

would probably have been able to afford only a

booklet of cigarette papers. When it was time for me

to leave, I would do so dragging my feet, a weight on

my soul. If it had been up to me, I would have stayed

there forever.

One Christmas Sempere gave me the best gift I

have ever received. It was an old volume, read and

experienced to the full.

“Great Expectations, by Charles Dickens,” I read

on the cover.

I was aware that Sempere knew a few authors who

frequented his establishment and, judging by the care

with which he handled the volume, I thought

perhaps this Mr. Dickens was one of them.

“A friend of yours?”

“A lifelong friend. And from now on, he’s your

friend too.”

That afternoon I took my new friend home,

hidden under my clothes so that my father wouldn’t

see it. It was a rainy winter, with days as gray as lead,

and I read Great Expectations about nine times,

partly because I had no other book at hand, partly

because I did not think there could be a better one in

the whole world and I was beginning to suspect that

Mr. Dickens had written it just for me. Soon I was

convinced that I didn’t want to do anything else in

life but learn to do what Mr. Dickens had done.

Even then my only friends were made of paper

and ink. At school I had learned to read and write

long before the other children. Where my school

friends saw notches of ink on incomprehensible

pages, I saw light, streets, and people. Words and the

mystery of their hidden science fascinated me, and I

saw in them a key with which I could unlock a

boundless world, a safe haven from that home, those

streets, and those troubled days in which even I

could sense that only a limited fortune awaited me.

My father didn’t like to see books in the house.

There was something about them—apart from the

letters he could not decipher—that offended him.

He used to tell me that as soon as I was ten he would

send me off to work and that I’d better get rid of all

my scatterbrained ideas if I didn’t want to end up a

loser, a nobody. I used to hide my books under the

mattress and wait for him to go out or fall asleep so

that I could read. Once he caught me reading at night

and flew into a rage. He tore the book from my

hands and flung it out of the window.

“If I catch you wasting electricity again, reading

all this nonsense, you’ll be sorry.”

My father was not a miser and, despite the

hardships we suffered, whenever he could he gave me

a few coins so that I could buy myself some treats like

the other children. He was convinced that I spent

them on licorice sticks, sunflower seeds, or sweets,

but I would keep them in a coffee tin under the bed,

and when I’d collected four or five reales I’d secretly

rush out to buy myself a book.

My favorite place in the whole city was the

Sempere & Sons bookshop on Calle Santa Ana. It

smelled of old paper and dust and it was my

sanctuary, my refuge. The bookseller would let me sit

on a chair in a corner and read any book I liked to

my heart’s content. He hardly ever allowed me to pay

for the books he placed in my hands, but when he

wasn’t looking I’d leave the coins I’d managed to

collect on the counter before I left. It was only small

change—if I’d had to buy a book with that pittance, I

would probably have been able to afford only a

booklet of cigarette papers. When it was time for me

to leave, I would do so dragging my feet, a weight on

my soul. If it had been up to me, I would have stayed

there forever.

One Christmas Sempere gave me the best gift I

have ever received. It was an old volume, read and

experienced to the full.

“Great Expectations, by Charles Dickens,” I read

on the cover.

I was aware that Sempere knew a few authors who

frequented his establishment and, judging by the care

with which he handled the volume, I thought

perhaps this Mr. Dickens was one of them.

“A friend of yours?”

“A lifelong friend. And from now on, he’s your

friend too.”

That afternoon I took my new friend home,

hidden under my clothes so that my father wouldn’t

see it. It was a rainy winter, with days as gray as lead,

and I read Great Expectations about nine times,

partly because I had no other book at hand, partly

because I did not think there could be a better one in

the whole world and I was beginning to suspect that

Mr. Dickens had written it just for me. Soon I was

convinced that I didn’t want to do anything else in

life but learn to do what Mr. Dickens had done.

Even then my only friends were made of paper

and ink. At school I had learned to read and write

long before the other children. Where my school

friends saw notches of ink on incomprehensible

pages, I saw light, streets, and people. Words and the

mystery of their hidden science fascinated me, and I

saw in them a key with which I could unlock a

boundless world, a safe haven from that home, those

streets, and those troubled days in which even I

could sense that only a limited fortune awaited me.

My father didn’t like to see books in the house.

There was something about them—apart from the

letters he could not decipher—that offended him.

He used to tell me that as soon as I was ten he would

send me off to work and that I’d better get rid of all

my scatterbrained ideas if I didn’t want to end up a

loser, a nobody. I used to hide my books under the

mattress and wait for him to go out or fall asleep so

that I could read. Once he caught me reading at night

and flew into a rage. He tore the book from my

hands and flung it out of the window.

“If I catch you wasting electricity again, reading

all this nonsense, you’ll be sorry.”

My father was not a miser and, despite the

hardships we suffered, whenever he could he gave me

a few coins so that I could buy myself some treats like

the other children. He was convinced that I spent

them on licorice sticks, sunflower seeds, or sweets,

but I would keep them in a coffee tin under the bed,

and when I’d collected four or five reales I’d secretly

rush out to buy myself a book.

My favorite place in the whole city was the

Sempere & Sons bookshop on Calle Santa Ana. It

smelled of old paper and dust and it was my

sanctuary, my refuge. The bookseller would let me sit

on a chair in a corner and read any book I liked to

my heart’s content. He hardly ever allowed me to pay

for the books he placed in my hands, but when he

wasn’t looking I’d leave the coins I’d managed to

collect on the counter before I left. It was only small

change—if I’d had to buy a book with that pittance, I

would probably have been able to afford only a

booklet of cigarette papers. When it was time for me

to leave, I would do so dragging my feet, a weight on

my soul. If it had been up to me, I would have stayed

there forever.

One Christmas Sempere gave me the best gift I

have ever received. It was an old volume, read and

experienced to the full.

“Great Expectations, by Charles Dickens,” I read

on the cover.

I was aware that Sempere knew a few authors who

frequented his establishment and, judging by the care

with which he handled the volume, I thought

perhaps this Mr. Dickens was one of them.

“A friend of yours?”

“A lifelong friend. And from now on, he’s your

friend too.”

That afternoon I took my new friend home,

hidden under my clothes so that my father wouldn’t

see it. It was a rainy winter, with days as gray as lead,

and I read Great Expectations about nine times,

partly because I had no other book at hand, partly

because I did not think there could be a better one in

the whole world and I was beginning to suspect that

Mr. Dickens had written it just for me. Soon I was

convinced that I didn’t want to do anything else in

life but learn to do what Mr. Dickens had done.

Even then my only friends were made of paper

and ink. At school I had learned to read and write

long before the other children. Where my school

friends saw notches of ink on incomprehensible

pages, I saw light, streets, and people. Words and the

mystery of their hidden science fascinated me, and I

saw in them a key with which I could unlock a

boundless world, a safe haven from that home, those

streets, and those troubled days in which even I

could sense that only a limited fortune awaited me.

My father didn’t like to see books in the house.

There was something about them—apart from the

letters he could not decipher—that offended him.

He used to tell me that as soon as I was ten he would

send me off to work and that I’d better get rid of all

my scatterbrained ideas if I didn’t want to end up a

loser, a nobody. I used to hide my books under the

mattress and wait for him to go out or fall asleep so

that I could read. Once he caught me reading at night

and flew into a rage. He tore the book from my

hands and flung it out of the window.

“If I catch you wasting electricity again, reading

all this nonsense, you’ll be sorry.”

My father was not a miser and, despite the

hardships we suffered, whenever he could he gave me

a few coins so that I could buy myself some treats like

the other children. He was convinced that I spent

them on licorice sticks, sunflower seeds, or sweets,

but I would keep them in a coffee tin under the bed,

and when I’d collected four or five reales I’d secretly

rush out to buy myself a book.

My favorite place in the whole city was the

Sempere & Sons bookshop on Calle Santa Ana. It

smelled of old paper and dust and it was my

sanctuary, my refuge. The bookseller would let me sit

on a chair in a corner and read any book I liked to

my heart’s content. He hardly ever allowed me to pay

for the books he placed in my hands, but when he

wasn’t looking I’d leave the coins I’d managed to

collect on the counter before I left. It was only small

change—if I’d had to buy a book with that pittance, I

would probably have been able to afford only a

booklet of cigarette papers. When it was time for me

to leave, I would do so dragging my feet, a weight on

my soul. If it had been up to me, I would have stayed

there forever.

One Christmas Sempere gave me the best gift I

have ever received. It was an old volume, read and

experienced to the full.

“Great Expectations, by Charles Dickens,” I read

on the cover.

I was aware that Sempere knew a few authors who

frequented his establishment and, judging by the care

with which he handled the volume, I thought

perhaps this Mr. Dickens was one of them.

“A friend of yours?”

“A lifelong friend. And from now on, he’s your

friend too.”

That afternoon I took my new friend home,

hidden under my clothes so that my father wouldn’t

see it. It was a rainy winter, with days as gray as lead,

and I read Great Expectations about nine times,

partly because I had no other book at hand, partly

because I did not think there could be a better one in

the whole world and I was beginning to suspect that

Mr. Dickens had written it just for me. Soon I was

convinced that I didn’t want to do anything else in

life but learn to do what Mr. Dickens had done.

Even then my only friends were made of paper

and ink. At school I had learned to read and write

long before the other children. Where my school

friends saw notches of ink on incomprehensible

pages, I saw light, streets, and people. Words and the

mystery of their hidden science fascinated me, and I

saw in them a key with which I could unlock a

boundless world, a safe haven from that home, those

streets, and those troubled days in which even I

could sense that only a limited fortune awaited me.

My father didn’t like to see books in the house.

There was something about them—apart from the

letters he could not decipher—that offended him.

He used to tell me that as soon as I was ten he would

send me off to work and that I’d better get rid of all

my scatterbrained ideas if I didn’t want to end up a

loser, a nobody. I used to hide my books under the

mattress and wait for him to go out or fall asleep so

that I could read. Once he caught me reading at night

and flew into a rage. He tore the book from my

hands and flung it out of the window.

“If I catch you wasting electricity again, reading

all this nonsense, you’ll be sorry.”

My father was not a miser and, despite the

hardships we suffered, whenever he could he gave me

a few coins so that I could buy myself some treats like

the other children. He was convinced that I spent

them on licorice sticks, sunflower seeds, or sweets,

but I would keep them in a coffee tin under the bed,

and when I’d collected four or five reales I’d secretly

rush out to buy myself a book.

My favorite place in the whole city was the

Sempere & Sons bookshop on Calle Santa Ana. It

smelled of old paper and dust and it was my

sanctuary, my refuge. The bookseller would let me sit

on a chair in a corner and read any book I liked to

my heart’s content. He hardly ever allowed me to pay

for the books he placed in my hands, but when he

wasn’t looking I’d leave the coins I’d managed to

collect on the counter before I left. It was only small

change—if I’d had to buy a book with that pittance, I

would probably have been able to afford only a

booklet of cigarette papers. When it was time for me

to leave, I would do so dragging my feet, a weight on

my soul. If it had been up to me, I would have stayed

there forever.

One Christmas Sempere gave me the best gift I

have ever received. It was an old volume, read and

experienced to the full.

“Great Expectations, by Charles Dickens,” I read

on the cover.

I was aware that Sempere knew a few authors who

frequented his establishment and, judging by the care

with which he handled the volume, I thought

perhaps this Mr. Dickens was one of them.

“A friend of yours?”

“A lifelong friend. And from now on, he’s your

friend too.”

That afternoon I took my new friend home,

hidden under my clothes so that my father wouldn’t

see it. It was a rainy winter, with days as gray as lead,

and I read Great Expectations about nine times,

partly because I had no other book at hand, partly

because I did not think there could be a better one in

the whole world and I was beginning to suspect that

Mr. Dickens had written it just for me. Soon I was

convinced that I didn’t want to do anything else in

life but learn to do what Mr. Dickens had done.

Even then my only friends were made of paper

and ink. At school I had learned to read and write

long before the other children. Where my school

friends saw notches of ink on incomprehensible

pages, I saw light, streets, and people. Words and the

mystery of their hidden science fascinated me, and I

saw in them a key with which I could unlock a

boundless world, a safe haven from that home, those

streets, and those troubled days in which even I

could sense that only a limited fortune awaited me.

My father didn’t like to see books in the house.

There was something about them—apart from the

letters he could not decipher—that offended him.

He used to tell me that as soon as I was ten he would

send me off to work and that I’d better get rid of all

my scatterbrained ideas if I didn’t want to end up a

loser, a nobody. I used to hide my books under the

mattress and wait for him to go out or fall asleep so

that I could read. Once he caught me reading at night

and flew into a rage. He tore the book from my

hands and flung it out of the window.

“If I catch you wasting electricity again, reading

all this nonsense, you’ll be sorry.”

My father was not a miser and, despite the

hardships we suffered, whenever he could he gave me

a few coins so that I could buy myself some treats like

the other children. He was convinced that I spent

them on licorice sticks, sunflower seeds, or sweets,

but I would keep them in a coffee tin under the bed,

and when I’d collected four or five reales I’d secretly

rush out to buy myself a book.

My favorite place in the whole city was the

Sempere & Sons bookshop on Calle Santa Ana. It

smelled of old paper and dust and it was my

sanctuary, my refuge. The bookseller would let me sit

on a chair in a corner and read any book I liked to

my heart’s content. He hardly ever allowed me to pay

for the books he placed in my hands, but when he

wasn’t looking I’d leave the coins I’d managed to

collect on the counter before I left. It was only small

change—if I’d had to buy a book with that pittance, I

would probably have been able to afford only a

booklet of cigarette papers. When it was time for me

to leave, I would do so dragging my feet, a weight on

my soul. If it had been up to me, I would have stayed

there forever.

One Christmas Sempere gave me the best gift I

have ever received. It was an old volume, read and

experienced to the full.

“Great Expectations, by Charles Dickens,” I read

on the cover.

I was aware that Sempere knew a few authors who

frequented his establishment and, judging by the care

with which he handled the volume, I thought

perhaps this Mr. Dickens was one of them.

“A friend of yours?”

“A lifelong friend. And from now on, he’s your

friend too.”

That afternoon I took my new friend home,

hidden under my clothes so that my father wouldn’t

see it. It was a rainy winter, with days as gray as lead,

and I read Great Expectations about nine times,

partly because I had no other book at hand, partly

because I did not think there could be a better one in

the whole world and I was beginning to suspect that

Mr. Dickens had written it just for me. Soon I was

convinced that I didn’t want to do anything else in

life but learn to do what Mr. Dickens had done.

Even then my only friends were made of paper

and ink. At school I had learned to read and write

long before the other children. Where my school

friends saw notches of ink on incomprehensible

pages, I saw light, streets, and people. Words and the

mystery of their hidden science fascinated me, and I

saw in them a key with which I could unlock a

boundless world, a safe haven from that home, those

streets, and those troubled days in which even I

could sense that only a limited fortune awaited me.

My father didn’t like to see books in the house.

There was something about them—apart from the

letters he could not decipher—that offended him.

He used to tell me that as soon as I was ten he would

send me off to work and that I’d better get rid of all

my scatterbrained ideas if I didn’t want to end up a

loser, a nobody. I used to hide my books under the

mattress and wait for him to go out or fall asleep so

that I could read. Once he caught me reading at night

and flew into a rage. He tore the book from my

hands and flung it out of the window.

“If I catch you wasting electricity again, reading

all this nonsense, you’ll be sorry.”

My father was not a miser and, despite the

hardships we suffered, whenever he could he gave me

a few coins so that I could buy myself some treats like

the other children. He was convinced that I spent

them on licorice sticks, sunflower seeds, or sweets,

but I would keep them in a coffee tin under the bed,

and when I’d collected four or five reales I’d secretly

rush out to buy myself a book.

My favorite place in the whole city was the

Sempere & Sons bookshop on Calle Santa Ana. It

smelled of old paper and dust and it was my

sanctuary, my refuge. The bookseller would let me sit

on a chair in a corner and read any book I liked to

my heart’s content. He hardly ever allowed me to pay

for the books he placed in my hands, but when he

wasn’t looking I’d leave the coins I’d managed to

collect on the counter before I left. It was only small

change—if I’d had to buy a book with that pittance, I

would probably have been able to afford only a

booklet of cigarette papers. When it was time for me

to leave, I would do so dragging my feet, a weight on

my soul. If it had been up to me, I would have stayed

there forever.

One Christmas Sempere gave me the best gift I

have ever received. It was an old volume, read and

experienced to the full.

“Great Expectations, by Charles Dickens,” I read

on the cover.

I was aware that Sempere knew a few authors who

frequented his establishment and, judging by the care

with which he handled the volume, I thought

perhaps this Mr. Dickens was one of them.

“A friend of yours?”

“A lifelong friend. And from now on, he’s your

friend too.”

That afternoon I took my new friend home,

hidden under my clothes so that my father wouldn’t

see it. It was a rainy winter, with days as gray as lead,

and I read Great Expectations about nine times,

partly because I had no other book at hand, partly

because I did not think there could be a better one in

the whole world and I was beginning to suspect that

Mr. Dickens had written it just for me. Soon I was

convinced that I didn’t want to do anything else in

life but learn to do what Mr. Dickens had done.

Even then my only friends were made of paper

and ink. At school I had learned to read and write

long before the other children. Where my school

friends saw notches of ink on incomprehensible

pages, I saw light, streets, and people. Words and the

mystery of their hidden science fascinated me, and I

saw in them a key with which I could unlock a

boundless world, a safe haven from that home, those

streets, and those troubled days in which even I

could sense that only a limited fortune awaited me.

My father didn’t like to see books in the house.

There was something about them—apart from the

letters he could not decipher—that offended him.

He used to tell me that as soon as I was ten he would

send me off to work and that I’d better get rid of all

my scatterbrained ideas if I didn’t want to end up a

loser, a nobody. I used to hide my books under the

mattress and wait for him to go out or fall asleep so

that I could read. Once he caught me reading at night

and flew into a rage. He tore the book from my

hands and flung it out of the window.

“If I catch you wasting electricity again, reading

all this nonsense, you’ll be sorry.”

My father was not a miser and, despite the

hardships we suffered, whenever he could he gave me

a few coins so that I could buy myself some treats like

the other children. He was convinced that I spent

them on licorice sticks, sunflower seeds, or sweets,

but I would keep them in a coffee tin under the bed,

and when I’d collected four or five reales I’d secretly

rush out to buy myself a book.

My favorite place in the whole city was the

Sempere & Sons bookshop on Calle Santa Ana. It

smelled of old paper and dust and it was my

sanctuary, my refuge. The bookseller would let me sit

on a chair in a corner and read any book I liked to

my heart’s content. He hardly ever allowed me to pay

for the books he placed in my hands, but when he

wasn’t looking I’d leave the coins I’d managed to

collect on the counter before I left. It was only small

change—if I’d had to buy a book with that pittance, I

would probably have been able to afford only a

booklet of cigarette papers. When it was time for me

to leave, I would do so dragging my feet, a weight on

my soul. If it had been up to me, I would have stayed

there forever.

One Christmas Sempere gave me the best gift I

have ever received. It was an old volume, read and

experienced to the full.

“Great Expectations, by Charles Dickens,” I read

on the cover.

I was aware that Sempere knew a few authors who

frequented his establishment and, judging by the care

with which he handled the volume, I thought

perhaps this Mr. Dickens was one of them.

“A friend of yours?”

“A lifelong friend. And from now on, he’s your

friend too.”

That afternoon I took my new friend home,

hidden under my clothes so that my father wouldn’t

see it. It was a rainy winter, with days as gray as lead,

and I read Great Expectations about nine times,

partly because I had no other book at hand, partly

because I did not think there could be a better one in

the whole world and I was beginning to suspect that

Mr. Dickens had written it just for me. Soon I was

convinced that I didn’t want to do anything else in

life but learn to do what Mr. Dickens had done.

Even then my only friends were made of paper

and ink. At school I had learned to read and write

long before the other children. Where my school

friends saw notches of ink on incomprehensible

pages, I saw light, streets, and people. Words and the

mystery of their hidden science fascinated me, and I

saw in them a key with which I could unlock a

boundless world, a safe haven from that home, those

streets, and those troubled days in which even I

could sense that only a limited fortune awaited me.

My father didn’t like to see books in the house.

There was something about them—apart from the

letters he could not decipher—that offended him.

He used to tell me that as soon as I was ten he would

send me off to work and that I’d better get rid of all

my scatterbrained ideas if I didn’t want to end up a

loser, a nobody. I used to hide my books under the

mattress and wait for him to go out or fall asleep so

that I could read. Once he caught me reading at night

and flew into a rage. He tore the book from my

hands and flung it out of the window.

“If I catch you wasting electricity again, reading

all this nonsense, you’ll be sorry.”

My father was not a miser and, despite the

hardships we suffered, whenever he could he gave me

a few coins so that I could buy myself some treats like

the other children. He was convinced that I spent

them on licorice sticks, sunflower seeds, or sweets,

but I would keep them in a coffee tin under the bed,

and when I’d collected four or five reales I’d secretly

rush out to buy myself a book.

My favorite place in the whole city was the

Sempere & Sons bookshop on Calle Santa Ana. It

smelled of old paper and dust and it was my

sanctuary, my refuge. The bookseller would let me sit

on a chair in a corner and read any book I liked to

my heart’s content. He hardly ever allowed me to pay

for the books he placed in my hands, but when he

wasn’t looking I’d leave the coins I’d managed to

collect on the counter before I left. It was only small

change—if I’d had to buy a book with that pittance, I

would probably have been able to afford only a

booklet of cigarette papers. When it was time for me

to leave, I would do so dragging my feet, a weight on

my soul. If it had been up to me, I would have stayed

there forever.

One Christmas Sempere gave me the best gift I

have ever received. It was an old volume, read and

experienced to the full.

“Great Expectations, by Charles Dickens,” I read

on the cover.

I was aware that Sempere knew a few authors who

frequented his establishment and, judging by the care

with which he handled the volume, I thought

perhaps this Mr. Dickens was one of them.

“A friend of yours?”

“A lifelong friend. And from now on, he’s your

friend too.”

That afternoon I took my new friend home,

hidden under my clothes so that my father wouldn’t

see it. It was a rainy winter, with days as gray as lead,

and I read Great Expectations about nine times,

partly because I had no other book at hand, partly

because I did not think there could be a better one in

the whole world and I was beginning to suspect that

Mr. Dickens had written it just for me. Soon I was

convinced that I didn’t want to do anything else in

life but learn to do what Mr. Dickens had done.

Even then my only friends were made of paper

and ink. At school I had learned to read and write

long before the other children. Where my school

friends saw notches of ink on incomprehensible

pages, I saw light, streets, and people. Words and the

mystery of their hidden science fascinated me, and I

saw in them a key with which I could unlock a

boundless world, a safe haven from that home, those

streets, and those troubled days in which even I

could sense that only a limited fortune awaited me.

My father didn’t like to see books in the house.

There was something about them—apart from the

letters he could not decipher—that offended him.

He used to tell me that as soon as I was ten he would

send me off to work and that I’d better get rid of all

my scatterbrained ideas if I didn’t want to end up a

loser, a nobody. I used to hide my books under the

mattress and wait for him to go out or fall asleep so

that I could read. Once he caught me reading at night

and flew into a rage. He tore the book from my

hands and flung it out of the window.

“If I catch you wasting electricity again, reading

all this nonsense, you’ll be sorry.”

My father was not a miser and, despite the

hardships we suffered, whenever he could he gave me

a few coins so that I could buy myself some treats like

the other children. He was convinced that I spent

them on licorice sticks, sunflower seeds, or sweets,

but I would keep them in a coffee tin under the bed,

and when I’d collected four or five reales I’d secretly

rush out to buy myself a book.

My favorite place in the whole city was the

Sempere & Sons bookshop on Calle Santa Ana. It

smelled of old paper and dust and it was my

sanctuary, my refuge. The bookseller would let me sit

on a chair in a corner and read any book I liked to

my heart’s content. He hardly ever allowed me to pay

for the books he placed in my hands, but when he

wasn’t looking I’d leave the coins I’d managed to

collect on the counter before I left. It was only small

change—if I’d had to buy a book with that pittance, I

would probably have been able to afford only a

booklet of cigarette papers. When it was time for me

to leave, I would do so dragging my feet, a weight on

my soul. If it had been up to me, I would have stayed

there forever.

One Christmas Sempere gave me the best gift I

have ever received. It was an old volume, read and

experienced to the full.

“Great Expectations, by Charles Dickens,” I read

on the cover.

I was aware that Sempere knew a few authors who

frequented his establishment and, judging by the care

with which he handled the volume, I thought

perhaps this Mr. Dickens was one of them.

“A friend of yours?”

“A lifelong friend. And from now on, he’s your

friend too.”

That afternoon I took my new friend home,

hidden under my clothes so that my father wouldn’t

see it. It was a rainy winter, with days as gray as lead,

and I read Great Expectations about nine times,

partly because I had no other book at hand, partly

because I did not think there could be a better one in

the whole world and I was beginning to suspect that

Mr. Dickens had written it just for me. Soon I was

convinced that I didn’t want to do anything else in

life but learn to do what Mr. Dickens had done.

Passage 1

Mr. Lincoln likens that bond of the Federal

Constitution, joining Free and Slave States together,

to a house divided against itself, and says that it is

contrary to the law of God, and cannot stand.

When did he learn, and by what authority does he

proclaim, that this Government is contrary to the law

of God and cannot stand? It has stood thus divided

into Free and Slave States from its organization up to

this day. During that period we have increased from

four millions to thirty millions of people; we have

extended our territory from the Mississippi to the

Pacific Ocean; we have acquired the Floridas and

Texas, and other territory sufficient to double our

geographical extent; we have increased in population,

in wealth, and in power beyond any example on

earth; we have risen from a weak and feeble power to

become the terror and admiration of the civilized

world; and all this has been done under a

Constitution which Mr. Lincoln, in substance, says is

in violation of the law of God; and under a Union

divided into Free and Slave States, which Mr. Lincoln

thinks, because of such division, cannot stand.

Surely, Mr. Lincoln is a wiser man than those who

framed the Government. . . .

I now come back to the question, why cannot this

Union exist forever, divided into Free and Slave

States, as our fathers made it? It can thus exist if each

State will carry out the principles upon which our

institutions were founded; to wit, the right of each

State to do as it pleases, without meddling with its

neighbors. Just act upon that great principle, and this

Union will not only live forever, but it will extend

and expand until it covers the whole continent, and

makes this confederacy one grand, ocean-bound

Republic. We must bear in mind that we are yet a

young nation, growing with a rapidity unequalled in

the history of the world, that our national increase is

great, and that the emigration from the old world is

increasing, requiring us to expand and acquire new

territory from time to time, in order to give our

people land to live upon. If we live upon the principle

of State rights and State sovereignty, each State

regulating its own affairs and minding its own

business, we can go on and extend indefinitely, just

as fast and as far as we need the territory. . . .

Passage 2

In complaining of what I said in my speech at

Springfield, in which he says I accepted my

nomination for the Senatorship . . . he again quotes

that portion in which I said that “a house divided

against itself cannot stand.” Let me say a word in

regard to that matter. He tries to persuade us that

there must be a variety in the different institutions of

the States of the Union; that that variety necessarily

proceeds from the variety of soil, climate, of the face

of the country, and the difference in the natural

features of the States. I agree to all that. Have these

very matters ever produced any difficulty among us?

Not at all. Have we ever had any quarrel over the fact

that they have laws in Louisiana designed to regulate

the commerce that springs from the production of

sugar? Or because we have a different class relative to

the production of flour in this State? Have they

produced any differences? Not at all. They are the

very cements of this Union. They don’t make the

house a “house divided against itself.” They are the

props that hold up the house and sustain the Union.

But has it been so with this element of slavery?

Have we not always had quarrels and difficulties over

it? And when will we cease to have quarrels over it?

Like causes produce like effects. It is worth while to

observe that we have generally had comparative

peace upon the slavery question, and that there has

been no cause for alarm until it was excited by the

effort to spread it into new territory. Whenever it has

been limited to its present bounds, and there has

been no effort to spread it, there has been peace. All

the trouble and convulsion has proceeded from

efforts to spread it over more territory. It was thus at

the date of the Missouri Compromise. It was so again

with the annexation of Texas; so with the territory

acquired by the Mexican War; and it is so now.

Whenever there has been an effort to spread it there

has been agitation and resistance. . . . Do you think

that the nature of man will be changed, that the same

causes that produced agitation at one time will not

have the same effect at another?

Passage 1

Mr. Lincoln likens that bond of the Federal

Constitution, joining Free and Slave States together,

to a house divided against itself, and says that it is

contrary to the law of God, and cannot stand.

When did he learn, and by what authority does he

proclaim, that this Government is contrary to the law

of God and cannot stand? It has stood thus divided

into Free and Slave States from its organization up to

this day. During that period we have increased from

four millions to thirty millions of people; we have

extended our territory from the Mississippi to the

Pacific Ocean; we have acquired the Floridas and

Texas, and other territory sufficient to double our

geographical extent; we have increased in population,

in wealth, and in power beyond any example on

earth; we have risen from a weak and feeble power to

become the terror and admiration of the civilized

world; and all this has been done under a

Constitution which Mr. Lincoln, in substance, says is

in violation of the law of God; and under a Union

divided into Free and Slave States, which Mr. Lincoln

thinks, because of such division, cannot stand.

Surely, Mr. Lincoln is a wiser man than those who

framed the Government. . . .

I now come back to the question, why cannot this

Union exist forever, divided into Free and Slave

States, as our fathers made it? It can thus exist if each

State will carry out the principles upon which our

institutions were founded; to wit, the right of each

State to do as it pleases, without meddling with its

neighbors. Just act upon that great principle, and this

Union will not only live forever, but it will extend

and expand until it covers the whole continent, and

makes this confederacy one grand, ocean-bound

Republic. We must bear in mind that we are yet a

young nation, growing with a rapidity unequalled in

the history of the world, that our national increase is

great, and that the emigration from the old world is

increasing, requiring us to expand and acquire new

territory from time to time, in order to give our

people land to live upon. If we live upon the principle

of State rights and State sovereignty, each State

regulating its own affairs and minding its own

business, we can go on and extend indefinitely, just

as fast and as far as we need the territory. . . .

Passage 2

In complaining of what I said in my speech at

Springfield, in which he says I accepted my

nomination for the Senatorship . . . he again quotes

that portion in which I said that “a house divided

against itself cannot stand.” Let me say a word in

regard to that matter. He tries to persuade us that

there must be a variety in the different institutions of

the States of the Union; that that variety necessarily

proceeds from the variety of soil, climate, of the face

of the country, and the difference in the natural

features of the States. I agree to all that. Have these

very matters ever produced any difficulty among us?

Not at all. Have we ever had any quarrel over the fact

that they have laws in Louisiana designed to regulate

the commerce that springs from the production of

sugar? Or because we have a different class relative to

the production of flour in this State? Have they

produced any differences? Not at all. They are the

very cements of this Union. They don’t make the

house a “house divided against itself.” They are the

props that hold up the house and sustain the Union.

But has it been so with this element of slavery?

Have we not always had quarrels and difficulties over

it? And when will we cease to have quarrels over it?

Like causes produce like effects. It is worth while to

observe that we have generally had comparative

peace upon the slavery question, and that there has

been no cause for alarm until it was excited by the

effort to spread it into new territory. Whenever it has

been limited to its present bounds, and there has

been no effort to spread it, there has been peace. All

the trouble and convulsion has proceeded from

efforts to spread it over more territory. It was thus at

the date of the Missouri Compromise. It was so again

with the annexation of Texas; so with the territory

acquired by the Mexican War; and it is so now.

Whenever there has been an effort to spread it there

has been agitation and resistance. . . . Do you think

that the nature of man will be changed, that the same

causes that produced agitation at one time will not

have the same effect at another?

Passage 1

Mr. Lincoln likens that bond of the Federal

Constitution, joining Free and Slave States together,

to a house divided against itself, and says that it is

contrary to the law of God, and cannot stand.

When did he learn, and by what authority does he

proclaim, that this Government is contrary to the law

of God and cannot stand? It has stood thus divided

into Free and Slave States from its organization up to

this day. During that period we have increased from

four millions to thirty millions of people; we have

extended our territory from the Mississippi to the

Pacific Ocean; we have acquired the Floridas and

Texas, and other territory sufficient to double our

geographical extent; we have increased in population,

in wealth, and in power beyond any example on

earth; we have risen from a weak and feeble power to

become the terror and admiration of the civilized

world; and all this has been done under a

Constitution which Mr. Lincoln, in substance, says is

in violation of the law of God; and under a Union

divided into Free and Slave States, which Mr. Lincoln

thinks, because of such division, cannot stand.

Surely, Mr. Lincoln is a wiser man than those who

framed the Government. . . .

I now come back to the question, why cannot this

Union exist forever, divided into Free and Slave

States, as our fathers made it? It can thus exist if each

State will carry out the principles upon which our

institutions were founded; to wit, the right of each

State to do as it pleases, without meddling with its

neighbors. Just act upon that great principle, and this

Union will not only live forever, but it will extend

and expand until it covers the whole continent, and

makes this confederacy one grand, ocean-bound

Republic. We must bear in mind that we are yet a

young nation, growing with a rapidity unequalled in

the history of the world, that our national increase is

great, and that the emigration from the old world is

increasing, requiring us to expand and acquire new

territory from time to time, in order to give our

people land to live upon. If we live upon the principle

of State rights and State sovereignty, each State

regulating its own affairs and minding its own

business, we can go on and extend indefinitely, just

as fast and as far as we need the territory. . . .

Passage 2

In complaining of what I said in my speech at

Springfield, in which he says I accepted my

nomination for the Senatorship . . . he again quotes

that portion in which I said that “a house divided

against itself cannot stand.” Let me say a word in

regard to that matter. He tries to persuade us that

there must be a variety in the different institutions of

the States of the Union; that that variety necessarily

proceeds from the variety of soil, climate, of the face

of the country, and the difference in the natural

features of the States. I agree to all that. Have these

very matters ever produced any difficulty among us?

Not at all. Have we ever had any quarrel over the fact

that they have laws in Louisiana designed to regulate

the commerce that springs from the production of

sugar? Or because we have a different class relative to

the production of flour in this State? Have they

produced any differences? Not at all. They are the

very cements of this Union. They don’t make the

house a “house divided against itself.” They are the

props that hold up the house and sustain the Union.

But has it been so with this element of slavery?

Have we not always had quarrels and difficulties over

it? And when will we cease to have quarrels over it?

Like causes produce like effects. It is worth while to

observe that we have generally had comparative

peace upon the slavery question, and that there has

been no cause for alarm until it was excited by the

effort to spread it into new territory. Whenever it has

been limited to its present bounds, and there has

been no effort to spread it, there has been peace. All

the trouble and convulsion has proceeded from

efforts to spread it over more territory. It was thus at

the date of the Missouri Compromise. It was so again

with the annexation of Texas; so with the territory

acquired by the Mexican War; and it is so now.

Whenever there has been an effort to spread it there

has been agitation and resistance. . . . Do you think

that the nature of man will be changed, that the same

causes that produced agitation at one time will not

have the same effect at another?

Passage 1

Mr. Lincoln likens that bond of the Federal

Constitution, joining Free and Slave States together,

to a house divided against itself, and says that it is

contrary to the law of God, and cannot stand.

When did he learn, and by what authority does he

proclaim, that this Government is contrary to the law

of God and cannot stand? It has stood thus divided

into Free and Slave States from its organization up to

this day. During that period we have increased from

four millions to thirty millions of people; we have

extended our territory from the Mississippi to the

Pacific Ocean; we have acquired the Floridas and

Texas, and other territory sufficient to double our

geographical extent; we have increased in population,

in wealth, and in power beyond any example on

earth; we have risen from a weak and feeble power to

become the terror and admiration of the civilized

world; and all this has been done under a

Constitution which Mr. Lincoln, in substance, says is

in violation of the law of God; and under a Union

divided into Free and Slave States, which Mr. Lincoln

thinks, because of such division, cannot stand.

Surely, Mr. Lincoln is a wiser man than those who

framed the Government. . . .

I now come back to the question, why cannot this

Union exist forever, divided into Free and Slave

States, as our fathers made it? It can thus exist if each

State will carry out the principles upon which our

institutions were founded; to wit, the right of each

State to do as it pleases, without meddling with its

neighbors. Just act upon that great principle, and this

Union will not only live forever, but it will extend

and expand until it covers the whole continent, and

makes this confederacy one grand, ocean-bound

Republic. We must bear in mind that we are yet a

young nation, growing with a rapidity unequalled in

the history of the world, that our national increase is

great, and that the emigration from the old world is

increasing, requiring us to expand and acquire new

territory from time to time, in order to give our

people land to live upon. If we live upon the principle

of State rights and State sovereignty, each State

regulating its own affairs and minding its own

business, we can go on and extend indefinitely, just

as fast and as far as we need the territory. . . .

Passage 2

In complaining of what I said in my speech at

Springfield, in which he says I accepted my

nomination for the Senatorship . . . he again quotes

that portion in which I said that “a house divided

against itself cannot stand.” Let me say a word in

regard to that matter. He tries to persuade us that

there must be a variety in the different institutions of

the States of the Union; that that variety necessarily

proceeds from the variety of soil, climate, of the face

of the country, and the difference in the natural

features of the States. I agree to all that. Have these

very matters ever produced any difficulty among us?

Not at all. Have we ever had any quarrel over the fact

that they have laws in Louisiana designed to regulate

the commerce that springs from the production of

sugar? Or because we have a different class relative to

the production of flour in this State? Have they

produced any differences? Not at all. They are the

very cements of this Union. They don’t make the

house a “house divided against itself.” They are the

props that hold up the house and sustain the Union.

But has it been so with this element of slavery?

Have we not always had quarrels and difficulties over

it? And when will we cease to have quarrels over it?

Like causes produce like effects. It is worth while to

observe that we have generally had comparative

peace upon the slavery question, and that there has

been no cause for alarm until it was excited by the

effort to spread it into new territory. Whenever it has

been limited to its present bounds, and there has

been no effort to spread it, there has been peace. All

the trouble and convulsion has proceeded from

efforts to spread it over more territory. It was thus at

the date of the Missouri Compromise. It was so again

with the annexation of Texas; so with the territory

acquired by the Mexican War; and it is so now.

Whenever there has been an effort to spread it there

has been agitation and resistance. . . . Do you think

that the nature of man will be changed, that the same

causes that produced agitation at one time will not

have the same effect at another?

Passage 1

Mr. Lincoln likens that bond of the Federal

Constitution, joining Free and Slave States together,

to a house divided against itself, and says that it is

contrary to the law of God, and cannot stand.

When did he learn, and by what authority does he

proclaim, that this Government is contrary to the law

of God and cannot stand? It has stood thus divided

into Free and Slave States from its organization up to

this day. During that period we have increased from

four millions to thirty millions of people; we have

extended our territory from the Mississippi to the

Pacific Ocean; we have acquired the Floridas and

Texas, and other territory sufficient to double our

geographical extent; we have increased in population,

in wealth, and in power beyond any example on

earth; we have risen from a weak and feeble power to

become the terror and admiration of the civilized

world; and all this has been done under a

Constitution which Mr. Lincoln, in substance, says is

in violation of the law of God; and under a Union

divided into Free and Slave States, which Mr. Lincoln

thinks, because of such division, cannot stand.

Surely, Mr. Lincoln is a wiser man than those who

framed the Government. . . .

I now come back to the question, why cannot this

Union exist forever, divided into Free and Slave

States, as our fathers made it? It can thus exist if each

State will carry out the principles upon which our

institutions were founded; to wit, the right of each

State to do as it pleases, without meddling with its

neighbors. Just act upon that great principle, and this

Union will not only live forever, but it will extend

and expand until it covers the whole continent, and

makes this confederacy one grand, ocean-bound

Republic. We must bear in mind that we are yet a

young nation, growing with a rapidity unequalled in

the history of the world, that our national increase is

great, and that the emigration from the old world is

increasing, requiring us to expand and acquire new

territory from time to time, in order to give our

people land to live upon. If we live upon the principle

of State rights and State sovereignty, each State

regulating its own affairs and minding its own

business, we can go on and extend indefinitely, just

as fast and as far as we need the territory. . . .

Passage 2

In complaining of what I said in my speech at

Springfield, in which he says I accepted my

nomination for the Senatorship . . . he again quotes

that portion in which I said that “a house divided

against itself cannot stand.” Let me say a word in

regard to that matter. He tries to persuade us that

there must be a variety in the different institutions of

the States of the Union; that that variety necessarily

proceeds from the variety of soil, climate, of the face

of the country, and the difference in the natural

features of the States. I agree to all that. Have these

very matters ever produced any difficulty among us?

Not at all. Have we ever had any quarrel over the fact

that they have laws in Louisiana designed to regulate

the commerce that springs from the production of

sugar? Or because we have a different class relative to

the production of flour in this State? Have they

produced any differences? Not at all. They are the

very cements of this Union. They don’t make the

house a “house divided against itself.” They are the

props that hold up the house and sustain the Union.

But has it been so with this element of slavery?

Have we not always had quarrels and difficulties over

it? And when will we cease to have quarrels over it?

Like causes produce like effects. It is worth while to

observe that we have generally had comparative

peace upon the slavery question, and that there has

been no cause for alarm until it was excited by the

effort to spread it into new territory. Whenever it has

been limited to its present bounds, and there has

been no effort to spread it, there has been peace. All

the trouble and convulsion has proceeded from

efforts to spread it over more territory. It was thus at

the date of the Missouri Compromise. It was so again

with the annexation of Texas; so with the territory

acquired by the Mexican War; and it is so now.

Whenever there has been an effort to spread it there

has been agitation and resistance. . . . Do you think

that the nature of man will be changed, that the same

causes that produced agitation at one time will not

have the same effect at another?

Passage 1

Mr. Lincoln likens that bond of the Federal

Constitution, joining Free and Slave States together,

to a house divided against itself, and says that it is

contrary to the law of God, and cannot stand.

When did he learn, and by what authority does he

proclaim, that this Government is contrary to the law

of God and cannot stand? It has stood thus divided

into Free and Slave States from its organization up to

this day. During that period we have increased from

four millions to thirty millions of people; we have

extended our territory from the Mississippi to the

Pacific Ocean; we have acquired the Floridas and

Texas, and other territory sufficient to double our

geographical extent; we have increased in population,

in wealth, and in power beyond any example on

earth; we have risen from a weak and feeble power to

become the terror and admiration of the civilized

world; and all this has been done under a

Constitution which Mr. Lincoln, in substance, says is

in violation of the law of God; and under a Union

divided into Free and Slave States, which Mr. Lincoln

thinks, because of such division, cannot stand.

Surely, Mr. Lincoln is a wiser man than those who

framed the Government. . . .

I now come back to the question, why cannot this

Union exist forever, divided into Free and Slave

States, as our fathers made it? It can thus exist if each

State will carry out the principles upon which our

institutions were founded; to wit, the right of each

State to do as it pleases, without meddling with its

neighbors. Just act upon that great principle, and this

Union will not only live forever, but it will extend

and expand until it covers the whole continent, and

makes this confederacy one grand, ocean-bound

Republic. We must bear in mind that we are yet a

young nation, growing with a rapidity unequalled in

the history of the world, that our national increase is

great, and that the emigration from the old world is

increasing, requiring us to expand and acquire new

territory from time to time, in order to give our

people land to live upon. If we live upon the principle

of State rights and State sovereignty, each State

regulating its own affairs and minding its own

business, we can go on and extend indefinitely, just

as fast and as far as we need the territory. . . .

Passage 2

In complaining of what I said in my speech at

Springfield, in which he says I accepted my

nomination for the Senatorship . . . he again quotes

that portion in which I said that “a house divided

against itself cannot stand.” Let me say a word in

regard to that matter. He tries to persuade us that

there must be a variety in the different institutions of

the States of the Union; that that variety necessarily

proceeds from the variety of soil, climate, of the face

of the country, and the difference in the natural

features of the States. I agree to all that. Have these

very matters ever produced any difficulty among us?

Not at all. Have we ever had any quarrel over the fact

that they have laws in Louisiana designed to regulate

the commerce that springs from the production of

sugar? Or because we have a different class relative to

the production of flour in this State? Have they

produced any differences? Not at all. They are the

very cements of this Union. They don’t make the

house a “house divided against itself.” They are the

props that hold up the house and sustain the Union.

But has it been so with this element of slavery?

Have we not always had quarrels and difficulties over

it? And when will we cease to have quarrels over it?

Like causes produce like effects. It is worth while to

observe that we have generally had comparative

peace upon the slavery question, and that there has

been no cause for alarm until it was excited by the

effort to spread it into new territory. Whenever it has

been limited to its present bounds, and there has

been no effort to spread it, there has been peace. All

the trouble and convulsion has proceeded from

efforts to spread it over more territory. It was thus at

the date of the Missouri Compromise. It was so again

with the annexation of Texas; so with the territory

acquired by the Mexican War; and it is so now.

Whenever there has been an effort to spread it there

has been agitation and resistance. . . . Do you think

that the nature of man will be changed, that the same

causes that produced agitation at one time will not

have the same effect at another?

Passage 1

Mr. Lincoln likens that bond of the Federal

Constitution, joining Free and Slave States together,

to a house divided against itself, and says that it is

contrary to the law of God, and cannot stand.

When did he learn, and by what authority does he

proclaim, that this Government is contrary to the law

of God and cannot stand? It has stood thus divided

into Free and Slave States from its organization up to

this day. During that period we have increased from

four millions to thirty millions of people; we have

extended our territory from the Mississippi to the

Pacific Ocean; we have acquired the Floridas and

Texas, and other territory sufficient to double our

geographical extent; we have increased in population,

in wealth, and in power beyond any example on

earth; we have risen from a weak and feeble power to

become the terror and admiration of the civilized

world; and all this has been done under a

Constitution which Mr. Lincoln, in substance, says is

in violation of the law of God; and under a Union

divided into Free and Slave States, which Mr. Lincoln

thinks, because of such division, cannot stand.

Surely, Mr. Lincoln is a wiser man than those who

framed the Government. . . .

I now come back to the question, why cannot this

Union exist forever, divided into Free and Slave

States, as our fathers made it? It can thus exist if each

State will carry out the principles upon which our

institutions were founded; to wit, the right of each

State to do as it pleases, without meddling with its

neighbors. Just act upon that great principle, and this

Union will not only live forever, but it will extend

and expand until it covers the whole continent, and

makes this confederacy one grand, ocean-bound

Republic. We must bear in mind that we are yet a

young nation, growing with a rapidity unequalled in

the history of the world, that our national increase is

great, and that the emigration from the old world is

increasing, requiring us to expand and acquire new

territory from time to time, in order to give our

people land to live upon. If we live upon the principle

of State rights and State sovereignty, each State

regulating its own affairs and minding its own

business, we can go on and extend indefinitely, just

as fast and as far as we need the territory. . . .

Passage 2

In complaining of what I said in my speech at

Springfield, in which he says I accepted my

nomination for the Senatorship . . . he again quotes

that portion in which I said that “a house divided

against itself cannot stand.” Let me say a word in

regard to that matter. He tries to persuade us that

there must be a variety in the different institutions of

the States of the Union; that that variety necessarily

proceeds from the variety of soil, climate, of the face

of the country, and the difference in the natural

features of the States. I agree to all that. Have these

very matters ever produced any difficulty among us?

Not at all. Have we ever had any quarrel over the fact

that they have laws in Louisiana designed to regulate

the commerce that springs from the production of

sugar? Or because we have a different class relative to

the production of flour in this State? Have they

produced any differences? Not at all. They are the

very cements of this Union. They don’t make the

house a “house divided against itself.” They are the

props that hold up the house and sustain the Union.

But has it been so with this element of slavery?

Have we not always had quarrels and difficulties over

it? And when will we cease to have quarrels over it?

Like causes produce like effects. It is worth while to

observe that we have generally had comparative

peace upon the slavery question, and that there has

been no cause for alarm until it was excited by the

effort to spread it into new territory. Whenever it has

been limited to its present bounds, and there has

been no effort to spread it, there has been peace. All

the trouble and convulsion has proceeded from

efforts to spread it over more territory. It was thus at

the date of the Missouri Compromise. It was so again

with the annexation of Texas; so with the territory

acquired by the Mexican War; and it is so now.

Whenever there has been an effort to spread it there

has been agitation and resistance. . . . Do you think

that the nature of man will be changed, that the same

causes that produced agitation at one time will not

have the same effect at another?

Passage 1

Mr. Lincoln likens that bond of the Federal

Constitution, joining Free and Slave States together,

to a house divided against itself, and says that it is

contrary to the law of God, and cannot stand.

When did he learn, and by what authority does he

proclaim, that this Government is contrary to the law

of God and cannot stand? It has stood thus divided

into Free and Slave States from its organization up to

this day. During that period we have increased from

four millions to thirty millions of people; we have

extended our territory from the Mississippi to the

Pacific Ocean; we have acquired the Floridas and

Texas, and other territory sufficient to double our

geographical extent; we have increased in population,

in wealth, and in power beyond any example on

earth; we have risen from a weak and feeble power to

become the terror and admiration of the civilized

world; and all this has been done under a

Constitution which Mr. Lincoln, in substance, says is

in violation of the law of God; and under a Union

divided into Free and Slave States, which Mr. Lincoln

thinks, because of such division, cannot stand.

Surely, Mr. Lincoln is a wiser man than those who

framed the Government. . . .

I now come back to the question, why cannot this

Union exist forever, divided into Free and Slave

States, as our fathers made it? It can thus exist if each

State will carry out the principles upon which our

institutions were founded; to wit, the right of each

State to do as it pleases, without meddling with its

neighbors. Just act upon that great principle, and this

Union will not only live forever, but it will extend

and expand until it covers the whole continent, and

makes this confederacy one grand, ocean-bound

Republic. We must bear in mind that we are yet a

young nation, growing with a rapidity unequalled in

the history of the world, that our national increase is

great, and that the emigration from the old world is

increasing, requiring us to expand and acquire new

territory from time to time, in order to give our

people land to live upon. If we live upon the principle

of State rights and State sovereignty, each State

regulating its own affairs and minding its own

business, we can go on and extend indefinitely, just

as fast and as far as we need the territory. . . .

Passage 2

In complaining of what I said in my speech at

Springfield, in which he says I accepted my

nomination for the Senatorship . . . he again quotes

that portion in which I said that “a house divided

against itself cannot stand.” Let me say a word in

regard to that matter. He tries to persuade us that

there must be a variety in the different institutions of

the States of the Union; that that variety necessarily

proceeds from the variety of soil, climate, of the face

of the country, and the difference in the natural

features of the States. I agree to all that. Have these

very matters ever produced any difficulty among us?

Not at all. Have we ever had any quarrel over the fact

that they have laws in Louisiana designed to regulate

the commerce that springs from the production of

sugar? Or because we have a different class relative to

the production of flour in this State? Have they

produced any differences? Not at all. They are the

very cements of this Union. They don’t make the

house a “house divided against itself.” They are the

props that hold up the house and sustain the Union.

But has it been so with this element of slavery?

Have we not always had quarrels and difficulties over

it? And when will we cease to have quarrels over it?

Like causes produce like effects. It is worth while to

observe that we have generally had comparative

peace upon the slavery question, and that there has

been no cause for alarm until it was excited by the

effort to spread it into new territory. Whenever it has

been limited to its present bounds, and there has

been no effort to spread it, there has been peace. All

the trouble and convulsion has proceeded from

efforts to spread it over more territory. It was thus at

the date of the Missouri Compromise. It was so again

with the annexation of Texas; so with the territory

acquired by the Mexican War; and it is so now.

Whenever there has been an effort to spread it there

has been agitation and resistance. . . . Do you think

that the nature of man will be changed, that the same

causes that produced agitation at one time will not

have the same effect at another?

Passage 1

Mr. Lincoln likens that bond of the Federal

Constitution, joining Free and Slave States together,

to a house divided against itself, and says that it is

contrary to the law of God, and cannot stand.

When did he learn, and by what authority does he

proclaim, that this Government is contrary to the law

of God and cannot stand? It has stood thus divided

into Free and Slave States from its organization up to

this day. During that period we have increased from

four millions to thirty millions of people; we have

extended our territory from the Mississippi to the

Pacific Ocean; we have acquired the Floridas and

Texas, and other territory sufficient to double our

geographical extent; we have increased in population,

in wealth, and in power beyond any example on

earth; we have risen from a weak and feeble power to

become the terror and admiration of the civilized

world; and all this has been done under a

Constitution which Mr. Lincoln, in substance, says is

in violation of the law of God; and under a Union

divided into Free and Slave States, which Mr. Lincoln

thinks, because of such division, cannot stand.

Surely, Mr. Lincoln is a wiser man than those who

framed the Government. . . .

I now come back to the question, why cannot this

Union exist forever, divided into Free and Slave

States, as our fathers made it? It can thus exist if each

State will carry out the principles upon which our

institutions were founded; to wit, the right of each

State to do as it pleases, without meddling with its

neighbors. Just act upon that great principle, and this

Union will not only live forever, but it will extend

and expand until it covers the whole continent, and

makes this confederacy one grand, ocean-bound

Republic. We must bear in mind that we are yet a

young nation, growing with a rapidity unequalled in

the history of the world, that our national increase is

great, and that the emigration from the old world is

increasing, requiring us to expand and acquire new

territory from time to time, in order to give our

people land to live upon. If we live upon the principle

of State rights and State sovereignty, each State

regulating its own affairs and minding its own

business, we can go on and extend indefinitely, just

as fast and as far as we need the territory. . . .

Passage 2

In complaining of what I said in my speech at

Springfield, in which he says I accepted my

nomination for the Senatorship . . . he again quotes

that portion in which I said that “a house divided

against itself cannot stand.” Let me say a word in

regard to that matter. He tries to persuade us that

there must be a variety in the different institutions of

the States of the Union; that that variety necessarily

proceeds from the variety of soil, climate, of the face

of the country, and the difference in the natural

features of the States. I agree to all that. Have these

very matters ever produced any difficulty among us?

Not at all. Have we ever had any quarrel over the fact

that they have laws in Louisiana designed to regulate

the commerce that springs from the production of

sugar? Or because we have a different class relative to

the production of flour in this State? Have they

produced any differences? Not at all. They are the

very cements of this Union. They don’t make the

house a “house divided against itself.” They are the

props that hold up the house and sustain the Union.

But has it been so with this element of slavery?

Have we not always had quarrels and difficulties over

it? And when will we cease to have quarrels over it?

Like causes produce like effects. It is worth while to

observe that we have generally had comparative

peace upon the slavery question, and that there has

been no cause for alarm until it was excited by the

effort to spread it into new territory. Whenever it has

been limited to its present bounds, and there has

been no effort to spread it, there has been peace. All

the trouble and convulsion has proceeded from

efforts to spread it over more territory. It was thus at

the date of the Missouri Compromise. It was so again

with the annexation of Texas; so with the territory

acquired by the Mexican War; and it is so now.

Whenever there has been an effort to spread it there

has been agitation and resistance. . . . Do you think

that the nature of man will be changed, that the same

causes that produced agitation at one time will not

have the same effect at another?

Passage 1

Mr. Lincoln likens that bond of the Federal

Constitution, joining Free and Slave States together,

to a house divided against itself, and says that it is

contrary to the law of God, and cannot stand.

When did he learn, and by what authority does he

proclaim, that this Government is contrary to the law

of God and cannot stand? It has stood thus divided

into Free and Slave States from its organization up to

this day. During that period we have increased from

four millions to thirty millions of people; we have

extended our territory from the Mississippi to the

Pacific Ocean; we have acquired the Floridas and

Texas, and other territory sufficient to double our

geographical extent; we have increased in population,

in wealth, and in power beyond any example on

earth; we have risen from a weak and feeble power to

become the terror and admiration of the civilized

world; and all this has been done under a

Constitution which Mr. Lincoln, in substance, says is

in violation of the law of God; and under a Union

divided into Free and Slave States, which Mr. Lincoln

thinks, because of such division, cannot stand.

Surely, Mr. Lincoln is a wiser man than those who

framed the Government. . . .

I now come back to the question, why cannot this

Union exist forever, divided into Free and Slave

States, as our fathers made it? It can thus exist if each

State will carry out the principles upon which our

institutions were founded; to wit, the right of each

State to do as it pleases, without meddling with its

neighbors. Just act upon that great principle, and this

Union will not only live forever, but it will extend

and expand until it covers the whole continent, and

makes this confederacy one grand, ocean-bound

Republic. We must bear in mind that we are yet a

young nation, growing with a rapidity unequalled in

the history of the world, that our national increase is

great, and that the emigration from the old world is

increasing, requiring us to expand and acquire new

territory from time to time, in order to give our

people land to live upon. If we live upon the principle

of State rights and State sovereignty, each State

regulating its own affairs and minding its own

business, we can go on and extend indefinitely, just

as fast and as far as we need the territory. . . .

Passage 2

In complaining of what I said in my speech at

Springfield, in which he says I accepted my

nomination for the Senatorship . . . he again quotes

that portion in which I said that “a house divided

against itself cannot stand.” Let me say a word in

regard to that matter. He tries to persuade us that

there must be a variety in the different institutions of

the States of the Union; that that variety necessarily

proceeds from the variety of soil, climate, of the face

of the country, and the difference in the natural

features of the States. I agree to all that. Have these

very matters ever produced any difficulty among us?

Not at all. Have we ever had any quarrel over the fact

that they have laws in Louisiana designed to regulate

the commerce that springs from the production of

sugar? Or because we have a different class relative to

the production of flour in this State? Have they

produced any differences? Not at all. They are the

very cements of this Union. They don’t make the

house a “house divided against itself.” They are the

props that hold up the house and sustain the Union.

But has it been so with this element of slavery?

Have we not always had quarrels and difficulties over

it? And when will we cease to have quarrels over it?

Like causes produce like effects. It is worth while to

observe that we have generally had comparative

peace upon the slavery question, and that there has

been no cause for alarm until it was excited by the

effort to spread it into new territory. Whenever it has

been limited to its present bounds, and there has

been no effort to spread it, there has been peace. All

the trouble and convulsion has proceeded from

efforts to spread it over more territory. It was thus at

the date of the Missouri Compromise. It was so again

with the annexation of Texas; so with the territory

acquired by the Mexican War; and it is so now.

Whenever there has been an effort to spread it there

has been agitation and resistance. . . . Do you think

that the nature of man will be changed, that the same

causes that produced agitation at one time will not

have the same effect at another?

The Venus flytrap [Dionaea muscipula] needs to

know when an ideal meal is crawling across its leaves.

Closing its trap requires a huge expense of energy,

and reopening the trap can take several hours, so

Dionaea only wants to spring closed when it’s sure

that the dawdling insect visiting its surface is large

enough to be worth its time. The large black hairs on

their lobes allow the Venus flytraps to literally feel

their prey, and they act as triggers that spring the

trap closed when the proper prey makes its way

across the trap. If the insect touches just one hair, the

trap will not spring shut; but a large enough bug will

likely touch two hairs within about twenty seconds,

and that signal springs the Venus flytrap into action.

We can look at this system as analogous to

short-term memory. First, the flytrap encodes the

information (forms the memory) that something (it

doesn’t know what) has touched one of its hairs.

Then it stores this information for a number of

seconds (retains the memory) and finally retrieves

this information (recalls the memory) once a second

hair is touched. If a small ant takes a while to get

from one hair to the next, the trap will have forgotten

the first touch by the time the ant brushes up against

the next hair. In other words, it loses the storage of

the information, doesn’t close, and the ant

happily meanders on. How does the plant encode

and store the information from the unassuming

bug’s encounter with the first hair? How does it

remember the first touch in order to react upon the

second?

Scientists have been puzzled by these questions

ever since John Burdon-Sanderson’s early report on

the physiology of the Venus flytrap in 1882. A

century later, Dieter Hodick and Andreas Sievers at

the University of Bonn in Germany proposed that

the flytrap stored information regarding how many

hairs have been touched in the electric charge of its

leaf. Their model is quite elegant in its simplicity.

In their studies, they discovered that touching a

trigger hair on the Venus flytrap causes an electric

action potential [a temporary reversal in the

electrical polarity of a cell membrane] that

induces calcium channels to open in the trap (this

coupling of action potentials and the opening of

calcium channels is similar to the processes that

occur during communication between human

neurons), thus causing a rapid increase in the

concentration of calcium ions.

They proposed that the trap requires a relatively

high concentration of calcium in order to close

and that a single action potential from just one

trigger hair being touched does not reach this level.

Therefore, a second hair needs to be stimulated to

push the calcium concentration over this threshold

and spring the trap. The encoding of the information

requires maintaining a high enough level of calcium

so that a second increase (triggered by touching the

second hair) pushes the total concentration of

calcium over the threshold. As the calcium ion

concentrations dissipate over time, if the second

touch and potential don’t happen quickly, the final

concentration after the second trigger won’t be high

enough to close the trap, and the memory is lost.

Subsequent research supports this model.

Alexander Volkov and his colleagues at Oakwood

University in Alabama first demonstrated that it is

indeed electricity that causes the Venus flytrap to

close. To test the model they rigged up very fine

electrodes and applied an electrical current to the

open lobes of the trap. This made the trap close

without any direct touch to its trigger hairs (while

they didn’t measure calcium levels, the current

likely led to increases). When they modified this

experiment by altering the amount of electrical

current, Volkov could determine the exact electrical

charge needed for the trap to close. As long as

fourteen microcoulombs—a tiny bit more than the

static electricity generated by rubbing two balloons

together—flowed between the two electrodes, the

trap closed. This could come as one large burst or as

a series of smaller charges within twenty seconds. If it

took longer than twenty seconds to accumulate the

total charge, the trap would remain open.

The Venus flytrap [Dionaea muscipula] needs to

know when an ideal meal is crawling across its leaves.

Closing its trap requires a huge expense of energy,

and reopening the trap can take several hours, so

Dionaea only wants to spring closed when it’s sure

that the dawdling insect visiting its surface is large

enough to be worth its time. The large black hairs on

their lobes allow the Venus flytraps to literally feel

their prey, and they act as triggers that spring the

trap closed when the proper prey makes its way

across the trap. If the insect touches just one hair, the

trap will not spring shut; but a large enough bug will

likely touch two hairs within about twenty seconds,

and that signal springs the Venus flytrap into action.

We can look at this system as analogous to

short-term memory. First, the flytrap encodes the

information (forms the memory) that something (it

doesn’t know what) has touched one of its hairs.

Then it stores this information for a number of

seconds (retains the memory) and finally retrieves

this information (recalls the memory) once a second

hair is touched. If a small ant takes a while to get

from one hair to the next, the trap will have forgotten

the first touch by the time the ant brushes up against

the next hair. In other words, it loses the storage of

the information, doesn’t close, and the ant

happily meanders on. How does the plant encode

and store the information from the unassuming

bug’s encounter with the first hair? How does it

remember the first touch in order to react upon the

second?

Scientists have been puzzled by these questions

ever since John Burdon-Sanderson’s early report on

the physiology of the Venus flytrap in 1882. A

century later, Dieter Hodick and Andreas Sievers at

the University of Bonn in Germany proposed that

the flytrap stored information regarding how many

hairs have been touched in the electric charge of its

leaf. Their model is quite elegant in its simplicity.

In their studies, they discovered that touching a

trigger hair on the Venus flytrap causes an electric

action potential [a temporary reversal in the

electrical polarity of a cell membrane] that

induces calcium channels to open in the trap (this

coupling of action potentials and the opening of

calcium channels is similar to the processes that

occur during communication between human

neurons), thus causing a rapid increase in the

concentration of calcium ions.

They proposed that the trap requires a relatively

high concentration of calcium in order to close

and that a single action potential from just one

trigger hair being touched does not reach this level.

Therefore, a second hair needs to be stimulated to

push the calcium concentration over this threshold

and spring the trap. The encoding of the information

requires maintaining a high enough level of calcium

so that a second increase (triggered by touching the

second hair) pushes the total concentration of

calcium over the threshold. As the calcium ion

concentrations dissipate over time, if the second

touch and potential don’t happen quickly, the final

concentration after the second trigger won’t be high

enough to close the trap, and the memory is lost.

Subsequent research supports this model.

Alexander Volkov and his colleagues at Oakwood

University in Alabama first demonstrated that it is

indeed electricity that causes the Venus flytrap to

close. To test the model they rigged up very fine

electrodes and applied an electrical current to the

open lobes of the trap. This made the trap close

without any direct touch to its trigger hairs (while

they didn’t measure calcium levels, the current

likely led to increases). When they modified this

experiment by altering the amount of electrical

current, Volkov could determine the exact electrical

charge needed for the trap to close. As long as

fourteen microcoulombs—a tiny bit more than the

static electricity generated by rubbing two balloons

together—flowed between the two electrodes, the

trap closed. This could come as one large burst or as

a series of smaller charges within twenty seconds. If it

took longer than twenty seconds to accumulate the

total charge, the trap would remain open.

The Venus flytrap [Dionaea muscipula] needs to

know when an ideal meal is crawling across its leaves.

Closing its trap requires a huge expense of energy,

and reopening the trap can take several hours, so

Dionaea only wants to spring closed when it’s sure

that the dawdling insect visiting its surface is large

enough to be worth its time. The large black hairs on

their lobes allow the Venus flytraps to literally feel

their prey, and they act as triggers that spring the

trap closed when the proper prey makes its way

across the trap. If the insect touches just one hair, the

trap will not spring shut; but a large enough bug will

likely touch two hairs within about twenty seconds,

and that signal springs the Venus flytrap into action.

We can look at this system as analogous to

short-term memory. First, the flytrap encodes the

information (forms the memory) that something (it

doesn’t know what) has touched one of its hairs.

Then it stores this information for a number of

seconds (retains the memory) and finally retrieves

this information (recalls the memory) once a second

hair is touched. If a small ant takes a while to get

from one hair to the next, the trap will have forgotten

the first touch by the time the ant brushes up against

the next hair. In other words, it loses the storage of

the information, doesn’t close, and the ant

happily meanders on. How does the plant encode

and store the information from the unassuming

bug’s encounter with the first hair? How does it

remember the first touch in order to react upon the

second?

Scientists have been puzzled by these questions

ever since John Burdon-Sanderson’s early report on

the physiology of the Venus flytrap in 1882. A

century later, Dieter Hodick and Andreas Sievers at

the University of Bonn in Germany proposed that

the flytrap stored information regarding how many

hairs have been touched in the electric charge of its

leaf. Their model is quite elegant in its simplicity.

In their studies, they discovered that touching a

trigger hair on the Venus flytrap causes an electric

action potential [a temporary reversal in the

electrical polarity of a cell membrane] that

induces calcium channels to open in the trap (this

coupling of action potentials and the opening of

calcium channels is similar to the processes that

occur during communication between human

neurons), thus causing a rapid increase in the

concentration of calcium ions.

They proposed that the trap requires a relatively

high concentration of calcium in order to close

and that a single action potential from just one

trigger hair being touched does not reach this level.

Therefore, a second hair needs to be stimulated to

push the calcium concentration over this threshold

and spring the trap. The encoding of the information

requires maintaining a high enough level of calcium

so that a second increase (triggered by touching the

second hair) pushes the total concentration of

calcium over the threshold. As the calcium ion

concentrations dissipate over time, if the second

touch and potential don’t happen quickly, the final

concentration after the second trigger won’t be high

enough to close the trap, and the memory is lost.

Subsequent research supports this model.

Alexander Volkov and his colleagues at Oakwood

University in Alabama first demonstrated that it is

indeed electricity that causes the Venus flytrap to

close. To test the model they rigged up very fine

electrodes and applied an electrical current to the

open lobes of the trap. This made the trap close

without any direct touch to its trigger hairs (while

they didn’t measure calcium levels, the current

likely led to increases). When they modified this

experiment by altering the amount of electrical

current, Volkov could determine the exact electrical

charge needed for the trap to close. As long as

fourteen microcoulombs—a tiny bit more than the

static electricity generated by rubbing two balloons

together—flowed between the two electrodes, the

trap closed. This could come as one large burst or as

a series of smaller charges within twenty seconds. If it

took longer than twenty seconds to accumulate the

total charge, the trap would remain open.

The Venus flytrap [Dionaea muscipula] needs to

know when an ideal meal is crawling across its leaves.

Closing its trap requires a huge expense of energy,

and reopening the trap can take several hours, so

Dionaea only wants to spring closed when it’s sure

that the dawdling insect visiting its surface is large

enough to be worth its time. The large black hairs on

their lobes allow the Venus flytraps to literally feel

their prey, and they act as triggers that spring the

trap closed when the proper prey makes its way

across the trap. If the insect touches just one hair, the

trap will not spring shut; but a large enough bug will

likely touch two hairs within about twenty seconds,

and that signal springs the Venus flytrap into action.

We can look at this system as analogous to

short-term memory. First, the flytrap encodes the

information (forms the memory) that something (it

doesn’t know what) has touched one of its hairs.

Then it stores this information for a number of

seconds (retains the memory) and finally retrieves

this information (recalls the memory) once a second

hair is touched. If a small ant takes a while to get

from one hair to the next, the trap will have forgotten

the first touch by the time the ant brushes up against

the next hair. In other words, it loses the storage of

the information, doesn’t close, and the ant

happily meanders on. How does the plant encode

and store the information from the unassuming

bug’s encounter with the first hair? How does it

remember the first touch in order to react upon the

second?

Scientists have been puzzled by these questions

ever since John Burdon-Sanderson’s early report on

the physiology of the Venus flytrap in 1882. A

century later, Dieter Hodick and Andreas Sievers at

the University of Bonn in Germany proposed that

the flytrap stored information regarding how many

hairs have been touched in the electric charge of its

leaf. Their model is quite elegant in its simplicity.

In their studies, they discovered that touching a

trigger hair on the Venus flytrap causes an electric

action potential [a temporary reversal in the

electrical polarity of a cell membrane] that

induces calcium channels to open in the trap (this

coupling of action potentials and the opening of

calcium channels is similar to the processes that

occur during communication between human

neurons), thus causing a rapid increase in the

concentration of calcium ions.

They proposed that the trap requires a relatively

high concentration of calcium in order to close

and that a single action potential from just one

trigger hair being touched does not reach this level.

Therefore, a second hair needs to be stimulated to

push the calcium concentration over this threshold

and spring the trap. The encoding of the information

requires maintaining a high enough level of calcium

so that a second increase (triggered by touching the

second hair) pushes the total concentration of

calcium over the threshold. As the calcium ion

concentrations dissipate over time, if the second

touch and potential don’t happen quickly, the final

concentration after the second trigger won’t be high

enough to close the trap, and the memory is lost.

Subsequent research supports this model.

Alexander Volkov and his colleagues at Oakwood

University in Alabama first demonstrated that it is

indeed electricity that causes the Venus flytrap to

close. To test the model they rigged up very fine

electrodes and applied an electrical current to the

open lobes of the trap. This made the trap close

without any direct touch to its trigger hairs (while

they didn’t measure calcium levels, the current

likely led to increases). When they modified this

experiment by altering the amount of electrical

current, Volkov could determine the exact electrical

charge needed for the trap to close. As long as

fourteen microcoulombs—a tiny bit more than the

static electricity generated by rubbing two balloons

together—flowed between the two electrodes, the

trap closed. This could come as one large burst or as

a series of smaller charges within twenty seconds. If it

took longer than twenty seconds to accumulate the

total charge, the trap would remain open.

The Venus flytrap [Dionaea muscipula] needs to

know when an ideal meal is crawling across its leaves.

Closing its trap requires a huge expense of energy,

and reopening the trap can take several hours, so

Dionaea only wants to spring closed when it’s sure

that the dawdling insect visiting its surface is large

enough to be worth its time. The large black hairs on

their lobes allow the Venus flytraps to literally feel

their prey, and they act as triggers that spring the

trap closed when the proper prey makes its way

across the trap. If the insect touches just one hair, the

trap will not spring shut; but a large enough bug will

likely touch two hairs within about twenty seconds,

and that signal springs the Venus flytrap into action.

We can look at this system as analogous to

short-term memory. First, the flytrap encodes the

information (forms the memory) that something (it

doesn’t know what) has touched one of its hairs.

Then it stores this information for a number of

seconds (retains the memory) and finally retrieves

this information (recalls the memory) once a second

hair is touched. If a small ant takes a while to get

from one hair to the next, the trap will have forgotten

the first touch by the time the ant brushes up against

the next hair. In other words, it loses the storage of

the information, doesn’t close, and the ant

happily meanders on. How does the plant encode

and store the information from the unassuming

bug’s encounter with the first hair? How does it

remember the first touch in order to react upon the

second?

Scientists have been puzzled by these questions

ever since John Burdon-Sanderson’s early report on

the physiology of the Venus flytrap in 1882. A

century later, Dieter Hodick and Andreas Sievers at

the University of Bonn in Germany proposed that

the flytrap stored information regarding how many

hairs have been touched in the electric charge of its

leaf. Their model is quite elegant in its simplicity.

In their studies, they discovered that touching a

trigger hair on the Venus flytrap causes an electric

action potential [a temporary reversal in the

electrical polarity of a cell membrane] that

induces calcium channels to open in the trap (this

coupling of action potentials and the opening of

calcium channels is similar to the processes that

occur during communication between human

neurons), thus causing a rapid increase in the

concentration of calcium ions.

They proposed that the trap requires a relatively

high concentration of calcium in order to close

and that a single action potential from just one

trigger hair being touched does not reach this level.

Therefore, a second hair needs to be stimulated to

push the calcium concentration over this threshold

and spring the trap. The encoding of the information

requires maintaining a high enough level of calcium

so that a second increase (triggered by touching the

second hair) pushes the total concentration of

calcium over the threshold. As the calcium ion

concentrations dissipate over time, if the second

touch and potential don’t happen quickly, the final

concentration after the second trigger won’t be high

enough to close the trap, and the memory is lost.

Subsequent research supports this model.

Alexander Volkov and his colleagues at Oakwood

University in Alabama first demonstrated that it is

indeed electricity that causes the Venus flytrap to

close. To test the model they rigged up very fine

electrodes and applied an electrical current to the

open lobes of the trap. This made the trap close

without any direct touch to its trigger hairs (while

they didn’t measure calcium levels, the current

likely led to increases). When they modified this

experiment by altering the amount of electrical

current, Volkov could determine the exact electrical

charge needed for the trap to close. As long as

fourteen microcoulombs—a tiny bit more than the

static electricity generated by rubbing two balloons

together—flowed between the two electrodes, the

trap closed. This could come as one large burst or as

a series of smaller charges within twenty seconds. If it

took longer than twenty seconds to accumulate the

total charge, the trap would remain open.

The Venus flytrap [Dionaea muscipula] needs to

know when an ideal meal is crawling across its leaves.

Closing its trap requires a huge expense of energy,

and reopening the trap can take several hours, so

Dionaea only wants to spring closed when it’s sure

that the dawdling insect visiting its surface is large

enough to be worth its time. The large black hairs on

their lobes allow the Venus flytraps to literally feel

their prey, and they act as triggers that spring the

trap closed when the proper prey makes its way

across the trap. If the insect touches just one hair, the

trap will not spring shut; but a large enough bug will

likely touch two hairs within about twenty seconds,

and that signal springs the Venus flytrap into action.

We can look at this system as analogous to

short-term memory. First, the flytrap encodes the

information (forms the memory) that something (it

doesn’t know what) has touched one of its hairs.

Then it stores this information for a number of

seconds (retains the memory) and finally retrieves

this information (recalls the memory) once a second

hair is touched. If a small ant takes a while to get

from one hair to the next, the trap will have forgotten

the first touch by the time the ant brushes up against

the next hair. In other words, it loses the storage of

the information, doesn’t close, and the ant

happily meanders on. How does the plant encode

and store the information from the unassuming

bug’s encounter with the first hair? How does it

remember the first touch in order to react upon the

second?

Scientists have been puzzled by these questions

ever since John Burdon-Sanderson’s early report on

the physiology of the Venus flytrap in 1882. A

century later, Dieter Hodick and Andreas Sievers at

the University of Bonn in Germany proposed that

the flytrap stored information regarding how many

hairs have been touched in the electric charge of its

leaf. Their model is quite elegant in its simplicity.

In their studies, they discovered that touching a

trigger hair on the Venus flytrap causes an electric

action potential [a temporary reversal in the

electrical polarity of a cell membrane] that

induces calcium channels to open in the trap (this

coupling of action potentials and the opening of

calcium channels is similar to the processes that

occur during communication between human

neurons), thus causing a rapid increase in the

concentration of calcium ions.

They proposed that the trap requires a relatively

high concentration of calcium in order to close

and that a single action potential from just one

trigger hair being touched does not reach this level.

Therefore, a second hair needs to be stimulated to

push the calcium concentration over this threshold

and spring the trap. The encoding of the information

requires maintaining a high enough level of calcium

so that a second increase (triggered by touching the

second hair) pushes the total concentration of

calcium over the threshold. As the calcium ion

concentrations dissipate over time, if the second

touch and potential don’t happen quickly, the final

concentration after the second trigger won’t be high

enough to close the trap, and the memory is lost.

Subsequent research supports this model.

Alexander Volkov and his colleagues at Oakwood

University in Alabama first demonstrated that it is

indeed electricity that causes the Venus flytrap to

close. To test the model they rigged up very fine

electrodes and applied an electrical current to the

open lobes of the trap. This made the trap close

without any direct touch to its trigger hairs (while

they didn’t measure calcium levels, the current

likely led to increases). When they modified this

experiment by altering the amount of electrical

current, Volkov could determine the exact electrical

charge needed for the trap to close. As long as

fourteen microcoulombs—a tiny bit more than the

static electricity generated by rubbing two balloons

together—flowed between the two electrodes, the

trap closed. This could come as one large burst or as

a series of smaller charges within twenty seconds. If it

took longer than twenty seconds to accumulate the

total charge, the trap would remain open.

The Venus flytrap [Dionaea muscipula] needs to

know when an ideal meal is crawling across its leaves.

Closing its trap requires a huge expense of energy,

and reopening the trap can take several hours, so

Dionaea only wants to spring closed when it’s sure

that the dawdling insect visiting its surface is large

enough to be worth its time. The large black hairs on

their lobes allow the Venus flytraps to literally feel

their prey, and they act as triggers that spring the

trap closed when the proper prey makes its way

across the trap. If the insect touches just one hair, the

trap will not spring shut; but a large enough bug will

likely touch two hairs within about twenty seconds,

and that signal springs the Venus flytrap into action.

We can look at this system as analogous to

short-term memory. First, the flytrap encodes the

information (forms the memory) that something (it

doesn’t know what) has touched one of its hairs.

Then it stores this information for a number of

seconds (retains the memory) and finally retrieves

this information (recalls the memory) once a second

hair is touched. If a small ant takes a while to get

from one hair to the next, the trap will have forgotten

the first touch by the time the ant brushes up against

the next hair. In other words, it loses the storage of

the information, doesn’t close, and the ant

happily meanders on. How does the plant encode

and store the information from the unassuming

bug’s encounter with the first hair? How does it

remember the first touch in order to react upon the

second?

Scientists have been puzzled by these questions

ever since John Burdon-Sanderson’s early report on

the physiology of the Venus flytrap in 1882. A

century later, Dieter Hodick and Andreas Sievers at

the University of Bonn in Germany proposed that

the flytrap stored information regarding how many

hairs have been touched in the electric charge of its

leaf. Their model is quite elegant in its simplicity.

In their studies, they discovered that touching a

trigger hair on the Venus flytrap causes an electric

action potential [a temporary reversal in the

electrical polarity of a cell membrane] that

induces calcium channels to open in the trap (this

coupling of action potentials and the opening of

calcium channels is similar to the processes that

occur during communication between human

neurons), thus causing a rapid increase in the

concentration of calcium ions.

They proposed that the trap requires a relatively

high concentration of calcium in order to close

and that a single action potential from just one

trigger hair being touched does not reach this level.

Therefore, a second hair needs to be stimulated to

push the calcium concentration over this threshold

and spring the trap. The encoding of the information

requires maintaining a high enough level of calcium

so that a second increase (triggered by touching the

second hair) pushes the total concentration of

calcium over the threshold. As the calcium ion

concentrations dissipate over time, if the second

touch and potential don’t happen quickly, the final

concentration after the second trigger won’t be high

enough to close the trap, and the memory is lost.

Subsequent research supports this model.

Alexander Volkov and his colleagues at Oakwood

University in Alabama first demonstrated that it is

indeed electricity that causes the Venus flytrap to

close. To test the model they rigged up very fine

electrodes and applied an electrical current to the

open lobes of the trap. This made the trap close

without any direct touch to its trigger hairs (while

they didn’t measure calcium levels, the current

likely led to increases). When they modified this

experiment by altering the amount of electrical

current, Volkov could determine the exact electrical

charge needed for the trap to close. As long as

fourteen microcoulombs—a tiny bit more than the

static electricity generated by rubbing two balloons

together—flowed between the two electrodes, the

trap closed. This could come as one large burst or as

a series of smaller charges within twenty seconds. If it

took longer than twenty seconds to accumulate the

total charge, the trap would remain open.

The Venus flytrap [Dionaea muscipula] needs to

know when an ideal meal is crawling across its leaves.

Closing its trap requires a huge expense of energy,

and reopening the trap can take several hours, so

Dionaea only wants to spring closed when it’s sure

that the dawdling insect visiting its surface is large

enough to be worth its time. The large black hairs on

their lobes allow the Venus flytraps to literally feel

their prey, and they act as triggers that spring the

trap closed when the proper prey makes its way

across the trap. If the insect touches just one hair, the

trap will not spring shut; but a large enough bug will

likely touch two hairs within about twenty seconds,

and that signal springs the Venus flytrap into action.

We can look at this system as analogous to

short-term memory. First, the flytrap encodes the

information (forms the memory) that something (it

doesn’t know what) has touched one of its hairs.

Then it stores this information for a number of

seconds (retains the memory) and finally retrieves

this information (recalls the memory) once a second

hair is touched. If a small ant takes a while to get

from one hair to the next, the trap will have forgotten

the first touch by the time the ant brushes up against

the next hair. In other words, it loses the storage of

the information, doesn’t close, and the ant

happily meanders on. How does the plant encode

and store the information from the unassuming

bug’s encounter with the first hair? How does it

remember the first touch in order to react upon the

second?

Scientists have been puzzled by these questions

ever since John Burdon-Sanderson’s early report on

the physiology of the Venus flytrap in 1882. A

century later, Dieter Hodick and Andreas Sievers at

the University of Bonn in Germany proposed that

the flytrap stored information regarding how many

hairs have been touched in the electric charge of its

leaf. Their model is quite elegant in its simplicity.

In their studies, they discovered that touching a

trigger hair on the Venus flytrap causes an electric

action potential [a temporary reversal in the

electrical polarity of a cell membrane] that

induces calcium channels to open in the trap (this

coupling of action potentials and the opening of

calcium channels is similar to the processes that

occur during communication between human

neurons), thus causing a rapid increase in the

concentration of calcium ions.

They proposed that the trap requires a relatively

high concentration of calcium in order to close

and that a single action potential from just one

trigger hair being touched does not reach this level.

Therefore, a second hair needs to be stimulated to

push the calcium concentration over this threshold

and spring the trap. The encoding of the information

requires maintaining a high enough level of calcium

so that a second increase (triggered by touching the

second hair) pushes the total concentration of

calcium over the threshold. As the calcium ion

concentrations dissipate over time, if the second

touch and potential don’t happen quickly, the final

concentration after the second trigger won’t be high

enough to close the trap, and the memory is lost.

Subsequent research supports this model.

Alexander Volkov and his colleagues at Oakwood

University in Alabama first demonstrated that it is

indeed electricity that causes the Venus flytrap to

close. To test the model they rigged up very fine

electrodes and applied an electrical current to the

open lobes of the trap. This made the trap close

without any direct touch to its trigger hairs (while

they didn’t measure calcium levels, the current

likely led to increases). When they modified this

experiment by altering the amount of electrical

current, Volkov could determine the exact electrical

charge needed for the trap to close. As long as

fourteen microcoulombs—a tiny bit more than the

static electricity generated by rubbing two balloons

together—flowed between the two electrodes, the

trap closed. This could come as one large burst or as

a series of smaller charges within twenty seconds. If it

took longer than twenty seconds to accumulate the

total charge, the trap would remain open.

The Venus flytrap [Dionaea muscipula] needs to

know when an ideal meal is crawling across its leaves.

Closing its trap requires a huge expense of energy,

and reopening the trap can take several hours, so

Dionaea only wants to spring closed when it’s sure

that the dawdling insect visiting its surface is large

enough to be worth its time. The large black hairs on

their lobes allow the Venus flytraps to literally feel

their prey, and they act as triggers that spring the

trap closed when the proper prey makes its way

across the trap. If the insect touches just one hair, the

trap will not spring shut; but a large enough bug will

likely touch two hairs within about twenty seconds,

and that signal springs the Venus flytrap into action.

We can look at this system as analogous to

short-term memory. First, the flytrap encodes the

information (forms the memory) that something (it

doesn’t know what) has touched one of its hairs.

Then it stores this information for a number of

seconds (retains the memory) and finally retrieves

this information (recalls the memory) once a second

hair is touched. If a small ant takes a while to get

from one hair to the next, the trap will have forgotten

the first touch by the time the ant brushes up against

the next hair. In other words, it loses the storage of

the information, doesn’t close, and the ant

happily meanders on. How does the plant encode

and store the information from the unassuming

bug’s encounter with the first hair? How does it

remember the first touch in order to react upon the

second?

Scientists have been puzzled by these questions

ever since John Burdon-Sanderson’s early report on

the physiology of the Venus flytrap in 1882. A

century later, Dieter Hodick and Andreas Sievers at

the University of Bonn in Germany proposed that

the flytrap stored information regarding how many

hairs have been touched in the electric charge of its

leaf. Their model is quite elegant in its simplicity.

In their studies, they discovered that touching a

trigger hair on the Venus flytrap causes an electric

action potential [a temporary reversal in the

electrical polarity of a cell membrane] that

induces calcium channels to open in the trap (this

coupling of action potentials and the opening of

calcium channels is similar to the processes that

occur during communication between human

neurons), thus causing a rapid increase in the

concentration of calcium ions.

They proposed that the trap requires a relatively

high concentration of calcium in order to close

and that a single action potential from just one

trigger hair being touched does not reach this level.

Therefore, a second hair needs to be stimulated to

push the calcium concentration over this threshold

and spring the trap. The encoding of the information

requires maintaining a high enough level of calcium

so that a second increase (triggered by touching the

second hair) pushes the total concentration of

calcium over the threshold. As the calcium ion

concentrations dissipate over time, if the second

touch and potential don’t happen quickly, the final

concentration after the second trigger won’t be high

enough to close the trap, and the memory is lost.

Subsequent research supports this model.

Alexander Volkov and his colleagues at Oakwood

University in Alabama first demonstrated that it is

indeed electricity that causes the Venus flytrap to

close. To test the model they rigged up very fine

electrodes and applied an electrical current to the

open lobes of the trap. This made the trap close

without any direct touch to its trigger hairs (while

they didn’t measure calcium levels, the current

likely led to increases). When they modified this

experiment by altering the amount of electrical

current, Volkov could determine the exact electrical

charge needed for the trap to close. As long as

fourteen microcoulombs—a tiny bit more than the

static electricity generated by rubbing two balloons

together—flowed between the two electrodes, the

trap closed. This could come as one large burst or as

a series of smaller charges within twenty seconds. If it

took longer than twenty seconds to accumulate the

total charge, the trap would remain open.

The Venus flytrap [Dionaea muscipula] needs to

know when an ideal meal is crawling across its leaves.

Closing its trap requires a huge expense of energy,

and reopening the trap can take several hours, so

Dionaea only wants to spring closed when it’s sure

that the dawdling insect visiting its surface is large

enough to be worth its time. The large black hairs on

their lobes allow the Venus flytraps to literally feel

their prey, and they act as triggers that spring the

trap closed when the proper prey makes its way

across the trap. If the insect touches just one hair, the

trap will not spring shut; but a large enough bug will

likely touch two hairs within about twenty seconds,

and that signal springs the Venus flytrap into action.

We can look at this system as analogous to

short-term memory. First, the flytrap encodes the

information (forms the memory) that something (it

doesn’t know what) has touched one of its hairs.

Then it stores this information for a number of

seconds (retains the memory) and finally retrieves

this information (recalls the memory) once a second

hair is touched. If a small ant takes a while to get

from one hair to the next, the trap will have forgotten

the first touch by the time the ant brushes up against

the next hair. In other words, it loses the storage of

the information, doesn’t close, and the ant

happily meanders on. How does the plant encode

and store the information from the unassuming

bug’s encounter with the first hair? How does it

remember the first touch in order to react upon the

second?

Scientists have been puzzled by these questions

ever since John Burdon-Sanderson’s early report on

the physiology of the Venus flytrap in 1882. A

century later, Dieter Hodick and Andreas Sievers at

the University of Bonn in Germany proposed that

the flytrap stored information regarding how many

hairs have been touched in the electric charge of its

leaf. Their model is quite elegant in its simplicity.

In their studies, they discovered that touching a

trigger hair on the Venus flytrap causes an electric

action potential [a temporary reversal in the

electrical polarity of a cell membrane] that

induces calcium channels to open in the trap (this

coupling of action potentials and the opening of

calcium channels is similar to the processes that

occur during communication between human

neurons), thus causing a rapid increase in the

concentration of calcium ions.

They proposed that the trap requires a relatively

high concentration of calcium in order to close

and that a single action potential from just one

trigger hair being touched does not reach this level.

Therefore, a second hair needs to be stimulated to

push the calcium concentration over this threshold

and spring the trap. The encoding of the information

requires maintaining a high enough level of calcium

so that a second increase (triggered by touching the

second hair) pushes the total concentration of

calcium over the threshold. As the calcium ion

concentrations dissipate over time, if the second

touch and potential don’t happen quickly, the final

concentration after the second trigger won’t be high

enough to close the trap, and the memory is lost.

Subsequent research supports this model.

Alexander Volkov and his colleagues at Oakwood

University in Alabama first demonstrated that it is

indeed electricity that causes the Venus flytrap to

close. To test the model they rigged up very fine

electrodes and applied an electrical current to the

open lobes of the trap. This made the trap close

without any direct touch to its trigger hairs (while

they didn’t measure calcium levels, the current

likely led to increases). When they modified this

experiment by altering the amount of electrical

current, Volkov could determine the exact electrical

charge needed for the trap to close. As long as

fourteen microcoulombs—a tiny bit more than the

static electricity generated by rubbing two balloons

together—flowed between the two electrodes, the

trap closed. This could come as one large burst or as

a series of smaller charges within twenty seconds. If it

took longer than twenty seconds to accumulate the

total charge, the trap would remain open.

The Venus flytrap [Dionaea muscipula] needs to

know when an ideal meal is crawling across its leaves.

Closing its trap requires a huge expense of energy,

and reopening the trap can take several hours, so

Dionaea only wants to spring closed when it’s sure

that the dawdling insect visiting its surface is large

enough to be worth its time. The large black hairs on

their lobes allow the Venus flytraps to literally feel

their prey, and they act as triggers that spring the

trap closed when the proper prey makes its way

across the trap. If the insect touches just one hair, the

trap will not spring shut; but a large enough bug will

likely touch two hairs within about twenty seconds,

and that signal springs the Venus flytrap into action.

We can look at this system as analogous to

short-term memory. First, the flytrap encodes the

information (forms the memory) that something (it

doesn’t know what) has touched one of its hairs.

Then it stores this information for a number of

seconds (retains the memory) and finally retrieves

this information (recalls the memory) once a second

hair is touched. If a small ant takes a while to get

from one hair to the next, the trap will have forgotten

the first touch by the time the ant brushes up against

the next hair. In other words, it loses the storage of

the information, doesn’t close, and the ant

happily meanders on. How does the plant encode

and store the information from the unassuming

bug’s encounter with the first hair? How does it

remember the first touch in order to react upon the

second?

Scientists have been puzzled by these questions

ever since John Burdon-Sanderson’s early report on

the physiology of the Venus flytrap in 1882. A

century later, Dieter Hodick and Andreas Sievers at

the University of Bonn in Germany proposed that

the flytrap stored information regarding how many

hairs have been touched in the electric charge of its

leaf. Their model is quite elegant in its simplicity.

In their studies, they discovered that touching a

trigger hair on the Venus flytrap causes an electric

action potential [a temporary reversal in the

electrical polarity of a cell membrane] that

induces calcium channels to open in the trap (this

coupling of action potentials and the opening of

calcium channels is similar to the processes that

occur during communication between human

neurons), thus causing a rapid increase in the

concentration of calcium ions.

They proposed that the trap requires a relatively

high concentration of calcium in order to close

and that a single action potential from just one

trigger hair being touched does not reach this level.

Therefore, a second hair needs to be stimulated to

push the calcium concentration over this threshold

and spring the trap. The encoding of the information

requires maintaining a high enough level of calcium

so that a second increase (triggered by touching the

second hair) pushes the total concentration of

calcium over the threshold. As the calcium ion

concentrations dissipate over time, if the second

touch and potential don’t happen quickly, the final

concentration after the second trigger won’t be high

enough to close the trap, and the memory is lost.

Subsequent research supports this model.

Alexander Volkov and his colleagues at Oakwood

University in Alabama first demonstrated that it is

indeed electricity that causes the Venus flytrap to

close. To test the model they rigged up very fine

electrodes and applied an electrical current to the

open lobes of the trap. This made the trap close

without any direct touch to its trigger hairs (while

they didn’t measure calcium levels, the current

likely led to increases). When they modified this

experiment by altering the amount of electrical

current, Volkov could determine the exact electrical

charge needed for the trap to close. As long as

fourteen microcoulombs—a tiny bit more than the

static electricity generated by rubbing two balloons

together—flowed between the two electrodes, the

trap closed. This could come as one large burst or as

a series of smaller charges within twenty seconds. If it

took longer than twenty seconds to accumulate the

total charge, the trap would remain open.

Compost: Don’t Waste This Waste

Over the past generation, people in many parts of the

United States have become accustomed to dividing their

household waste products into different categories for

recycling. 1 Regardless, paper may go in one container,

glass and aluminum in another, regular garbage in a

third. Recently, some US cities have added a new

category: compost, organic matter such as food scraps

and yard debris. Like paper or glass recycling,

composting demands a certain amount of effort from the

public in order to be successful. But the inconveniences

of composting are far outweighed by its benefits.

Most people think of banana peels, eggshells, and

dead leaves as “waste,” but compost is actually a valuable

resource with multiple practical uses. When utilized as a

garden fertilizer, compost provides nutrients to soil and

improves plant growth while deterring or killing pests

and preventing some plant diseases. It also enhances soil

texture, encouraging healthy roots and minimizing or

2 annihilating the need for chemical fertilizers. Better

than soil at holding moisture, compost minimizes water

waste and storm runoff, 3 it increases savings on

watering costs, and helps reduce erosion on

embankments near bodies of water. In large

4 quantities, which one would expect to see when it is

collected for an entire municipality), compost can be

converted into a natural gas that can be used as fuel for

transportation or heating and cooling systems.

In spite of all compost’s potential uses, however,

most of this so-called waste is wasted. According to the

Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), over

5 13 million tons of metal ended up in US landfills in

2009, along with over 13 million tons of yard debris.

Remarkably, 6 less glass was discarded in landfills in

that year than any other substance, including plastics or

paper. Even 7 worse, then the squandering of this

useful resource is the fact that compost in landfills cannot

break down due to the lack of necessary air and moisture.

8 contribute to the release of methane, a very

9 potent greenhouse gas.

10 While composting can sometimes lead to

accidental pollution through the release of methane gas,

cities such as San Francisco and Seattle have instituted

mandatory composting laws requiring individuals and

businesses to use separate bins for compostable waste.

This strict approach may not work everywhere. However,

given the clear benefits of composting and the

environmental costs of not composting, all municipalities

should encourage their residents either to create their

own compost piles for use in backyard gardens 11 or to

dispose of compostable materials in bins for collection.

Compost: Don’t Waste This Waste

Over the past generation, people in many parts of the

United States have become accustomed to dividing their

household waste products into different categories for

recycling. 1 Regardless, paper may go in one container,

glass and aluminum in another, regular garbage in a

third. Recently, some US cities have added a new

category: compost, organic matter such as food scraps

and yard debris. Like paper or glass recycling,

composting demands a certain amount of effort from the

public in order to be successful. But the inconveniences

of composting are far outweighed by its benefits.

Most people think of banana peels, eggshells, and

dead leaves as “waste,” but compost is actually a valuable

resource with multiple practical uses. When utilized as a

garden fertilizer, compost provides nutrients to soil and

improves plant growth while deterring or killing pests

and preventing some plant diseases. It also enhances soil

texture, encouraging healthy roots and minimizing or

2 annihilating the need for chemical fertilizers. Better

than soil at holding moisture, compost minimizes water

waste and storm runoff, 3 it increases savings on

watering costs, and helps reduce erosion on

embankments near bodies of water. In large

4 quantities, which one would expect to see when it is

collected for an entire municipality), compost can be

converted into a natural gas that can be used as fuel for

transportation or heating and cooling systems.

In spite of all compost’s potential uses, however,

most of this so-called waste is wasted. According to the

Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), over

5 13 million tons of metal ended up in US landfills in

2009, along with over 13 million tons of yard debris.

Remarkably, 6 less glass was discarded in landfills in

that year than any other substance, including plastics or

paper. Even 7 worse, then the squandering of this

useful resource is the fact that compost in landfills cannot

break down due to the lack of necessary air and moisture.

8 contribute to the release of methane, a very

9 potent greenhouse gas.

10 While composting can sometimes lead to

accidental pollution through the release of methane gas,

cities such as San Francisco and Seattle have instituted

mandatory composting laws requiring individuals and

businesses to use separate bins for compostable waste.

This strict approach may not work everywhere. However,

given the clear benefits of composting and the

environmental costs of not composting, all municipalities

should encourage their residents either to create their

own compost piles for use in backyard gardens 11 or to

dispose of compostable materials in bins for collection.

Compost: Don’t Waste This Waste

Over the past generation, people in many parts of the

United States have become accustomed to dividing their

household waste products into different categories for

recycling. 1 Regardless, paper may go in one container,

glass and aluminum in another, regular garbage in a

third. Recently, some US cities have added a new

category: compost, organic matter such as food scraps

and yard debris. Like paper or glass recycling,

composting demands a certain amount of effort from the

public in order to be successful. But the inconveniences

of composting are far outweighed by its benefits.

Most people think of banana peels, eggshells, and

dead leaves as “waste,” but compost is actually a valuable

resource with multiple practical uses. When utilized as a

garden fertilizer, compost provides nutrients to soil and

improves plant growth while deterring or killing pests

and preventing some plant diseases. It also enhances soil

texture, encouraging healthy roots and minimizing or

2 annihilating the need for chemical fertilizers. Better

than soil at holding moisture, compost minimizes water

waste and storm runoff, 3 it increases savings on

watering costs, and helps reduce erosion on

embankments near bodies of water. In large

4 quantities, which one would expect to see when it is

collected for an entire municipality), compost can be

converted into a natural gas that can be used as fuel for

transportation or heating and cooling systems.

In spite of all compost’s potential uses, however,

most of this so-called waste is wasted. According to the

Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), over

5 13 million tons of metal ended up in US landfills in

2009, along with over 13 million tons of yard debris.

Remarkably, 6 less glass was discarded in landfills in

that year than any other substance, including plastics or

paper. Even 7 worse, then the squandering of this

useful resource is the fact that compost in landfills cannot

break down due to the lack of necessary air and moisture.

8 contribute to the release of methane, a very

9 potent greenhouse gas.

10 While composting can sometimes lead to

accidental pollution through the release of methane gas,

cities such as San Francisco and Seattle have instituted

mandatory composting laws requiring individuals and

businesses to use separate bins for compostable waste.

This strict approach may not work everywhere. However,

given the clear benefits of composting and the

environmental costs of not composting, all municipalities

should encourage their residents either to create their

own compost piles for use in backyard gardens 11 or to

dispose of compostable materials in bins for collection.

Compost: Don’t Waste This Waste

Over the past generation, people in many parts of the

United States have become accustomed to dividing their

household waste products into different categories for

recycling. 1 Regardless, paper may go in one container,

glass and aluminum in another, regular garbage in a

third. Recently, some US cities have added a new

category: compost, organic matter such as food scraps

and yard debris. Like paper or glass recycling,

composting demands a certain amount of effort from the

public in order to be successful. But the inconveniences

of composting are far outweighed by its benefits.

Most people think of banana peels, eggshells, and

dead leaves as “waste,” but compost is actually a valuable

resource with multiple practical uses. When utilized as a

garden fertilizer, compost provides nutrients to soil and

improves plant growth while deterring or killing pests

and preventing some plant diseases. It also enhances soil

texture, encouraging healthy roots and minimizing or

2 annihilating the need for chemical fertilizers. Better

than soil at holding moisture, compost minimizes water

waste and storm runoff, 3 it increases savings on

watering costs, and helps reduce erosion on

embankments near bodies of water. In large

4 quantities, which one would expect to see when it is

collected for an entire municipality), compost can be

converted into a natural gas that can be used as fuel for

transportation or heating and cooling systems.

In spite of all compost’s potential uses, however,

most of this so-called waste is wasted. According to the

Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), over

5 13 million tons of metal ended up in US landfills in

2009, along with over 13 million tons of yard debris.

Remarkably, 6 less glass was discarded in landfills in

that year than any other substance, including plastics or

paper. Even 7 worse, then the squandering of this

useful resource is the fact that compost in landfills cannot

break down due to the lack of necessary air and moisture.

8 contribute to the release of methane, a very

9 potent greenhouse gas.

10 While composting can sometimes lead to

accidental pollution through the release of methane gas,

cities such as San Francisco and Seattle have instituted

mandatory composting laws requiring individuals and

businesses to use separate bins for compostable waste.

This strict approach may not work everywhere. However,

given the clear benefits of composting and the

environmental costs of not composting, all municipalities

should encourage their residents either to create their

own compost piles for use in backyard gardens 11 or to

dispose of compostable materials in bins for collection.

Compost: Don’t Waste This Waste

Over the past generation, people in many parts of the

United States have become accustomed to dividing their

household waste products into different categories for

recycling. 1 Regardless, paper may go in one container,

glass and aluminum in another, regular garbage in a

third. Recently, some US cities have added a new

category: compost, organic matter such as food scraps

and yard debris. Like paper or glass recycling,

composting demands a certain amount of effort from the

public in order to be successful. But the inconveniences

of composting are far outweighed by its benefits.

Most people think of banana peels, eggshells, and

dead leaves as “waste,” but compost is actually a valuable

resource with multiple practical uses. When utilized as a

garden fertilizer, compost provides nutrients to soil and

improves plant growth while deterring or killing pests

and preventing some plant diseases. It also enhances soil

texture, encouraging healthy roots and minimizing or

2 annihilating the need for chemical fertilizers. Better

than soil at holding moisture, compost minimizes water

waste and storm runoff, 3 it increases savings on

watering costs, and helps reduce erosion on

embankments near bodies of water. In large

4 quantities, which one would expect to see when it is

collected for an entire municipality), compost can be

converted into a natural gas that can be used as fuel for

transportation or heating and cooling systems.

In spite of all compost’s potential uses, however,

most of this so-called waste is wasted. According to the

Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), over

5 13 million tons of metal ended up in US landfills in

2009, along with over 13 million tons of yard debris.

Remarkably, 6 less glass was discarded in landfills in

that year than any other substance, including plastics or

paper. Even 7 worse, then the squandering of this

useful resource is the fact that compost in landfills cannot

break down due to the lack of necessary air and moisture.

8 contribute to the release of methane, a very

9 potent greenhouse gas.

10 While composting can sometimes lead to

accidental pollution through the release of methane gas,

cities such as San Francisco and Seattle have instituted

mandatory composting laws requiring individuals and

businesses to use separate bins for compostable waste.

This strict approach may not work everywhere. However,

given the clear benefits of composting and the

environmental costs of not composting, all municipalities

should encourage their residents either to create their

own compost piles for use in backyard gardens 11 or to

dispose of compostable materials in bins for collection.

Compost: Don’t Waste This Waste

Over the past generation, people in many parts of the

United States have become accustomed to dividing their

household waste products into different categories for

recycling. 1 Regardless, paper may go in one container,

glass and aluminum in another, regular garbage in a

third. Recently, some US cities have added a new

category: compost, organic matter such as food scraps

and yard debris. Like paper or glass recycling,

composting demands a certain amount of effort from the

public in order to be successful. But the inconveniences

of composting are far outweighed by its benefits.

Most people think of banana peels, eggshells, and

dead leaves as “waste,” but compost is actually a valuable

resource with multiple practical uses. When utilized as a

garden fertilizer, compost provides nutrients to soil and

improves plant growth while deterring or killing pests

and preventing some plant diseases. It also enhances soil

texture, encouraging healthy roots and minimizing or

2 annihilating the need for chemical fertilizers. Better

than soil at holding moisture, compost minimizes water

waste and storm runoff, 3 it increases savings on

watering costs, and helps reduce erosion on

embankments near bodies of water. In large

4 quantities, which one would expect to see when it is

collected for an entire municipality), compost can be

converted into a natural gas that can be used as fuel for

transportation or heating and cooling systems.

In spite of all compost’s potential uses, however,

most of this so-called waste is wasted. According to the

Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), over

5 13 million tons of metal ended up in US landfills in

2009, along with over 13 million tons of yard debris.

Remarkably, 6 less glass was discarded in landfills in

that year than any other substance, including plastics or

paper. Even 7 worse, then the squandering of this

useful resource is the fact that compost in landfills cannot

break down due to the lack of necessary air and moisture.

8 contribute to the release of methane, a very

9 potent greenhouse gas.

10 While composting can sometimes lead to

accidental pollution through the release of methane gas,

cities such as San Francisco and Seattle have instituted

mandatory composting laws requiring individuals and

businesses to use separate bins for compostable waste.

This strict approach may not work everywhere. However,

given the clear benefits of composting and the

environmental costs of not composting, all municipalities

should encourage their residents either to create their

own compost piles for use in backyard gardens 11 or to

dispose of compostable materials in bins for collection.

Compost: Don’t Waste This Waste

Over the past generation, people in many parts of the

United States have become accustomed to dividing their

household waste products into different categories for

recycling. 1 Regardless, paper may go in one container,

glass and aluminum in another, regular garbage in a

third. Recently, some US cities have added a new

category: compost, organic matter such as food scraps

and yard debris. Like paper or glass recycling,

composting demands a certain amount of effort from the

public in order to be successful. But the inconveniences

of composting are far outweighed by its benefits.

Most people think of banana peels, eggshells, and

dead leaves as “waste,” but compost is actually a valuable

resource with multiple practical uses. When utilized as a

garden fertilizer, compost provides nutrients to soil and

improves plant growth while deterring or killing pests

and preventing some plant diseases. It also enhances soil

texture, encouraging healthy roots and minimizing or

2 annihilating the need for chemical fertilizers. Better

than soil at holding moisture, compost minimizes water

waste and storm runoff, 3 it increases savings on

watering costs, and helps reduce erosion on

embankments near bodies of water. In large

4 quantities, which one would expect to see when it is

collected for an entire municipality), compost can be

converted into a natural gas that can be used as fuel for

transportation or heating and cooling systems.

In spite of all compost’s potential uses, however,

most of this so-called waste is wasted. According to the

Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), over

5 13 million tons of metal ended up in US landfills in

2009, along with over 13 million tons of yard debris.

Remarkably, 6 less glass was discarded in landfills in

that year than any other substance, including plastics or

paper. Even 7 worse, then the squandering of this

useful resource is the fact that compost in landfills cannot

break down due to the lack of necessary air and moisture.

8 contribute to the release of methane, a very

9 potent greenhouse gas.

10 While composting can sometimes lead to

accidental pollution through the release of methane gas,

cities such as San Francisco and Seattle have instituted

mandatory composting laws requiring individuals and

businesses to use separate bins for compostable waste.

This strict approach may not work everywhere. However,

given the clear benefits of composting and the

environmental costs of not composting, all municipalities

should encourage their residents either to create their

own compost piles for use in backyard gardens 11 or to

dispose of compostable materials in bins for collection.

Compost: Don’t Waste This Waste

Over the past generation, people in many parts of the

United States have become accustomed to dividing their

household waste products into different categories for

recycling. 1 Regardless, paper may go in one container,

glass and aluminum in another, regular garbage in a

third. Recently, some US cities have added a new

category: compost, organic matter such as food scraps

and yard debris. Like paper or glass recycling,

composting demands a certain amount of effort from the

public in order to be successful. But the inconveniences

of composting are far outweighed by its benefits.

Most people think of banana peels, eggshells, and

dead leaves as “waste,” but compost is actually a valuable

resource with multiple practical uses. When utilized as a

garden fertilizer, compost provides nutrients to soil and

improves plant growth while deterring or killing pests

and preventing some plant diseases. It also enhances soil

texture, encouraging healthy roots and minimizing or

2 annihilating the need for chemical fertilizers. Better

than soil at holding moisture, compost minimizes water

waste and storm runoff, 3 it increases savings on

watering costs, and helps reduce erosion on

embankments near bodies of water. In large

4 quantities, which one would expect to see when it is

collected for an entire municipality), compost can be

converted into a natural gas that can be used as fuel for

transportation or heating and cooling systems.

In spite of all compost’s potential uses, however,

most of this so-called waste is wasted. According to the

Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), over

5 13 million tons of metal ended up in US landfills in

2009, along with over 13 million tons of yard debris.

Remarkably, 6 less glass was discarded in landfills in

that year than any other substance, including plastics or

paper. Even 7 worse, then the squandering of this

useful resource is the fact that compost in landfills cannot

break down due to the lack of necessary air and moisture.

8 contribute to the release of methane, a very

9 potent greenhouse gas.

10 While composting can sometimes lead to

accidental pollution through the release of methane gas,

cities such as San Francisco and Seattle have instituted

mandatory composting laws requiring individuals and

businesses to use separate bins for compostable waste.

This strict approach may not work everywhere. However,

given the clear benefits of composting and the

environmental costs of not composting, all municipalities

should encourage their residents either to create their

own compost piles for use in backyard gardens 11 or to

dispose of compostable materials in bins for collection.

Close at hand is a bridge over the River Thames, an admirable vantage ground for us to make a survey. The river flows beneath; barges pass, laden

Line  with timber, bursting with corn; there on one side are

5  the domes and spires of the city; on the other, Westminster and the Houses of Parliament. It is a place to stand on by the hour, dreaming. But not now. Now we are pressed for time. Now we are here to consider facts; now we must fix our eyes upon the

10  procession—the procession of the sons of educated men.

There they go, our brothers who have been educated at public schools and universities, mounting those steps, passing in and out of those

15  doors, ascending those pulpits, preaching, teaching, administering justice, practising medicine, transacting business, making money. It is a solemn sight always—a procession, like a caravanserai crossing a desert.... But now, for the past twenty

20  years or so, it is no longer a sight merely, a photograph, or fresco scrawled upon the walls of time, at which we can look with merely an esthetic appreciation. For there, trapesing along at the tail end of the procession, we go ourselves. And that

25 makes a difference. We who have looked so long at the pageant in books, or from a curtained window watched educated men leaving the house at about nine-thirty to go to an office, returning to the house at about six-thirty from an office, need look passively

30  no longer. We too can leave the house, can mount those steps, pass in and out of those doors,... make money, administer justice.... We who now agitate these humble pens may in another century or two speak from a pulpit. Nobody will dare contradict us

35  then; we shall be the mouthpieces of the divine spirit—a solemn thought, is it not? Who can say whether, as time goes on, we may not dress in military uniform, with gold lace on our breasts, swords at our sides, and something like the old

40  family coal-scuttle on our heads, save that that venerable object was never decorated with plumes of white horsehair. You laugh—indeed the shadow of the private house still makes those dresses look a little queer. We have worn private clothes so

45  long.... But we have not come here to laugh, or to

talk of fashions—men’s and women’s. We are here, on the bridge, to ask ourselves certain questions.

And they are very important questions; and we have very little time in which to answer them. The

50  questions that we have to ask and to answer about that procession during this moment of transition are so important that they may well change the lives of all men and women for ever. For we have to ask ourselves, here and now, do we wish to join that

55  procession, or don’t we? On what terms shall we join that procession? Above all, where is it leading us, the procession of educated men? The moment is short; it may last five years; ten years, or perhaps only a matter of a few months longer.... But, you will

60  object, you have no time to think; you have your battles to fight, your rent to pay, your bazaars to organize. That excuse shall not serve you, Madam. As you know from your own experience, and there are facts that prove it, the daughters of educated men

65  have always done their thinking from hand to mouth; not under green lamps at study tables in the cloisters of secluded colleges. They have thought while they stirred the pot, while they rocked the cradle. It was thus that they won us the right to our

70  brand-new sixpence. It falls to us now to go on thinking; how are we to spend that sixpence? Think we must. Let us think in offices; in omnibuses; while we are standing in the crowd watching Coronations and Lord Mayor’s Shows; let us think... in the

75  gallery of the House of Commons; in the Law Courts; let us think at baptisms and marriages and funerals. Let us never cease from thinking—what is this “civilization” in which we find ourselves? What are these ceremonies and why should we take part in

80  them? What are these professions and why should we make money out of them? Where in short is it leading us, the procession of the sons of educated men?

Close at hand is a bridge over the River Thames, an admirable vantage ground for us to make a survey. The river flows beneath; barges pass, laden

Line  with timber, bursting with corn; there on one side are

5  the domes and spires of the city; on the other, Westminster and the Houses of Parliament. It is a place to stand on by the hour, dreaming. But not now. Now we are pressed for time. Now we are here to consider facts; now we must fix our eyes upon the

10  procession—the procession of the sons of educated men.

There they go, our brothers who have been educated at public schools and universities, mounting those steps, passing in and out of those

15  doors, ascending those pulpits, preaching, teaching, administering justice, practising medicine, transacting business, making money. It is a solemn sight always—a procession, like a caravanserai crossing a desert.... But now, for the past twenty

20  years or so, it is no longer a sight merely, a photograph, or fresco scrawled upon the walls of time, at which we can look with merely an esthetic appreciation. For there, trapesing along at the tail end of the procession, we go ourselves. And that

25 makes a difference. We who have looked so long at the pageant in books, or from a curtained window watched educated men leaving the house at about nine-thirty to go to an office, returning to the house at about six-thirty from an office, need look passively

30  no longer. We too can leave the house, can mount those steps, pass in and out of those doors,... make money, administer justice.... We who now agitate these humble pens may in another century or two speak from a pulpit. Nobody will dare contradict us

35  then; we shall be the mouthpieces of the divine spirit—a solemn thought, is it not? Who can say whether, as time goes on, we may not dress in military uniform, with gold lace on our breasts, swords at our sides, and something like the old

40  family coal-scuttle on our heads, save that that venerable object was never decorated with plumes of white horsehair. You laugh—indeed the shadow of the private house still makes those dresses look a little queer. We have worn private clothes so

45  long.... But we have not come here to laugh, or to

talk of fashions—men’s and women’s. We are here, on the bridge, to ask ourselves certain questions.

And they are very important questions; and we have very little time in which to answer them. The

50  questions that we have to ask and to answer about that procession during this moment of transition are so important that they may well change the lives of all men and women for ever. For we have to ask ourselves, here and now, do we wish to join that

55  procession, or don’t we? On what terms shall we join that procession? Above all, where is it leading us, the procession of educated men? The moment is short; it may last five years; ten years, or perhaps only a matter of a few months longer.... But, you will

60  object, you have no time to think; you have your battles to fight, your rent to pay, your bazaars to organize. That excuse shall not serve you, Madam. As you know from your own experience, and there are facts that prove it, the daughters of educated men

65  have always done their thinking from hand to mouth; not under green lamps at study tables in the cloisters of secluded colleges. They have thought while they stirred the pot, while they rocked the cradle. It was thus that they won us the right to our

70  brand-new sixpence. It falls to us now to go on thinking; how are we to spend that sixpence? Think we must. Let us think in offices; in omnibuses; while we are standing in the crowd watching Coronations and Lord Mayor’s Shows; let us think... in the

75  gallery of the House of Commons; in the Law Courts; let us think at baptisms and marriages and funerals. Let us never cease from thinking—what is this “civilization” in which we find ourselves? What are these ceremonies and why should we take part in

80  them? What are these professions and why should we make money out of them? Where in short is it leading us, the procession of the sons of educated men?

Close at hand is a bridge over the River Thames, an admirable vantage ground for us to make a survey. The river flows beneath; barges pass, laden

Line  with timber, bursting with corn; there on one side are

5  the domes and spires of the city; on the other, Westminster and the Houses of Parliament. It is a place to stand on by the hour, dreaming. But not now. Now we are pressed for time. Now we are here to consider facts; now we must fix our eyes upon the

10  procession—the procession of the sons of educated men.

There they go, our brothers who have been educated at public schools and universities, mounting those steps, passing in and out of those

15  doors, ascending those pulpits, preaching, teaching, administering justice, practising medicine, transacting business, making money. It is a solemn sight always—a procession, like a caravanserai crossing a desert.... But now, for the past twenty

20  years or so, it is no longer a sight merely, a photograph, or fresco scrawled upon the walls of time, at which we can look with merely an esthetic appreciation. For there, trapesing along at the tail end of the procession, we go ourselves. And that

25 makes a difference. We who have looked so long at the pageant in books, or from a curtained window watched educated men leaving the house at about nine-thirty to go to an office, returning to the house at about six-thirty from an office, need look passively

30  no longer. We too can leave the house, can mount those steps, pass in and out of those doors,... make money, administer justice.... We who now agitate these humble pens may in another century or two speak from a pulpit. Nobody will dare contradict us

35  then; we shall be the mouthpieces of the divine spirit—a solemn thought, is it not? Who can say whether, as time goes on, we may not dress in military uniform, with gold lace on our breasts, swords at our sides, and something like the old

40  family coal-scuttle on our heads, save that that venerable object was never decorated with plumes of white horsehair. You laugh—indeed the shadow of the private house still makes those dresses look a little queer. We have worn private clothes so

45  long.... But we have not come here to laugh, or to

talk of fashions—men’s and women’s. We are here, on the bridge, to ask ourselves certain questions.

And they are very important questions; and we have very little time in which to answer them. The

50  questions that we have to ask and to answer about that procession during this moment of transition are so important that they may well change the lives of all men and women for ever. For we have to ask ourselves, here and now, do we wish to join that

55  procession, or don’t we? On what terms shall we join that procession? Above all, where is it leading us, the procession of educated men? The moment is short; it may last five years; ten years, or perhaps only a matter of a few months longer.... But, you will

60  object, you have no time to think; you have your battles to fight, your rent to pay, your bazaars to organize. That excuse shall not serve you, Madam. As you know from your own experience, and there are facts that prove it, the daughters of educated men

65  have always done their thinking from hand to mouth; not under green lamps at study tables in the cloisters of secluded colleges. They have thought while they stirred the pot, while they rocked the cradle. It was thus that they won us the right to our

70  brand-new sixpence. It falls to us now to go on thinking; how are we to spend that sixpence? Think we must. Let us think in offices; in omnibuses; while we are standing in the crowd watching Coronations and Lord Mayor’s Shows; let us think... in the

75  gallery of the House of Commons; in the Law Courts; let us think at baptisms and marriages and funerals. Let us never cease from thinking—what is this “civilization” in which we find ourselves? What are these ceremonies and why should we take part in

80  them? What are these professions and why should we make money out of them? Where in short is it leading us, the procession of the sons of educated men?

Close at hand is a bridge over the River Thames, an admirable vantage ground for us to make a survey. The river flows beneath; barges pass, laden

Line  with timber, bursting with corn; there on one side are

5  the domes and spires of the city; on the other, Westminster and the Houses of Parliament. It is a place to stand on by the hour, dreaming. But not now. Now we are pressed for time. Now we are here to consider facts; now we must fix our eyes upon the

10  procession—the procession of the sons of educated men.

There they go, our brothers who have been educated at public schools and universities, mounting those steps, passing in and out of those

15  doors, ascending those pulpits, preaching, teaching, administering justice, practising medicine, transacting business, making money. It is a solemn sight always—a procession, like a caravanserai crossing a desert.... But now, for the past twenty

20  years or so, it is no longer a sight merely, a photograph, or fresco scrawled upon the walls of time, at which we can look with merely an esthetic appreciation. For there, trapesing along at the tail end of the procession, we go ourselves. And that

25 makes a difference. We who have looked so long at the pageant in books, or from a curtained window watched educated men leaving the house at about nine-thirty to go to an office, returning to the house at about six-thirty from an office, need look passively

30  no longer. We too can leave the house, can mount those steps, pass in and out of those doors,... make money, administer justice.... We who now agitate these humble pens may in another century or two speak from a pulpit. Nobody will dare contradict us

35  then; we shall be the mouthpieces of the divine spirit—a solemn thought, is it not? Who can say whether, as time goes on, we may not dress in military uniform, with gold lace on our breasts, swords at our sides, and something like the old

40  family coal-scuttle on our heads, save that that venerable object was never decorated with plumes of white horsehair. You laugh—indeed the shadow of the private house still makes those dresses look a little queer. We have worn private clothes so

45  long.... But we have not come here to laugh, or to

talk of fashions—men’s and women’s. We are here, on the bridge, to ask ourselves certain questions.

And they are very important questions; and we have very little time in which to answer them. The

50  questions that we have to ask and to answer about that procession during this moment of transition are so important that they may well change the lives of all men and women for ever. For we have to ask ourselves, here and now, do we wish to join that

55  procession, or don’t we? On what terms shall we join that procession? Above all, where is it leading us, the procession of educated men? The moment is short; it may last five years; ten years, or perhaps only a matter of a few months longer.... But, you will

60  object, you have no time to think; you have your battles to fight, your rent to pay, your bazaars to organize. That excuse shall not serve you, Madam. As you know from your own experience, and there are facts that prove it, the daughters of educated men

65  have always done their thinking from hand to mouth; not under green lamps at study tables in the cloisters of secluded colleges. They have thought while they stirred the pot, while they rocked the cradle. It was thus that they won us the right to our

70  brand-new sixpence. It falls to us now to go on thinking; how are we to spend that sixpence? Think we must. Let us think in offices; in omnibuses; while we are standing in the crowd watching Coronations and Lord Mayor’s Shows; let us think... in the

75  gallery of the House of Commons; in the Law Courts; let us think at baptisms and marriages and funerals. Let us never cease from thinking—what is this “civilization” in which we find ourselves? What are these ceremonies and why should we take part in

80  them? What are these professions and why should we make money out of them? Where in short is it leading us, the procession of the sons of educated men?

Close at hand is a bridge over the River Thames, an admirable vantage ground for us to make a survey. The river flows beneath; barges pass, laden

Line  with timber, bursting with corn; there on one side are

5  the domes and spires of the city; on the other, Westminster and the Houses of Parliament. It is a place to stand on by the hour, dreaming. But not now. Now we are pressed for time. Now we are here to consider facts; now we must fix our eyes upon the

10  procession—the procession of the sons of educated men.

There they go, our brothers who have been educated at public schools and universities, mounting those steps, passing in and out of those

15  doors, ascending those pulpits, preaching, teaching, administering justice, practising medicine, transacting business, making money. It is a solemn sight always—a procession, like a caravanserai crossing a desert.... But now, for the past twenty

20  years or so, it is no longer a sight merely, a photograph, or fresco scrawled upon the walls of time, at which we can look with merely an esthetic appreciation. For there, trapesing along at the tail end of the procession, we go ourselves. And that

25 makes a difference. We who have looked so long at the pageant in books, or from a curtained window watched educated men leaving the house at about nine-thirty to go to an office, returning to the house at about six-thirty from an office, need look passively

30  no longer. We too can leave the house, can mount those steps, pass in and out of those doors,... make money, administer justice.... We who now agitate these humble pens may in another century or two speak from a pulpit. Nobody will dare contradict us

35  then; we shall be the mouthpieces of the divine spirit—a solemn thought, is it not? Who can say whether, as time goes on, we may not dress in military uniform, with gold lace on our breasts, swords at our sides, and something like the old

40  family coal-scuttle on our heads, save that that venerable object was never decorated with plumes of white horsehair. You laugh—indeed the shadow of the private house still makes those dresses look a little queer. We have worn private clothes so

45  long.... But we have not come here to laugh, or to

talk of fashions—men’s and women’s. We are here, on the bridge, to ask ourselves certain questions.

And they are very important questions; and we have very little time in which to answer them. The

50  questions that we have to ask and to answer about that procession during this moment of transition are so important that they may well change the lives of all men and women for ever. For we have to ask ourselves, here and now, do we wish to join that

55  procession, or don’t we? On what terms shall we join that procession? Above all, where is it leading us, the procession of educated men? The moment is short; it may last five years; ten years, or perhaps only a matter of a few months longer.... But, you will

60  object, you have no time to think; you have your battles to fight, your rent to pay, your bazaars to organize. That excuse shall not serve you, Madam. As you know from your own experience, and there are facts that prove it, the daughters of educated men

65  have always done their thinking from hand to mouth; not under green lamps at study tables in the cloisters of secluded colleges. They have thought while they stirred the pot, while they rocked the cradle. It was thus that they won us the right to our

70  brand-new sixpence. It falls to us now to go on thinking; how are we to spend that sixpence? Think we must. Let us think in offices; in omnibuses; while we are standing in the crowd watching Coronations and Lord Mayor’s Shows; let us think... in the

75  gallery of the House of Commons; in the Law Courts; let us think at baptisms and marriages and funerals. Let us never cease from thinking—what is this “civilization” in which we find ourselves? What are these ceremonies and why should we take part in

80  them? What are these professions and why should we make money out of them? Where in short is it leading us, the procession of the sons of educated men?

Close at hand is a bridge over the River Thames, an admirable vantage ground for us to make a survey. The river flows beneath; barges pass, laden

Line  with timber, bursting with corn; there on one side are

5  the domes and spires of the city; on the other, Westminster and the Houses of Parliament. It is a place to stand on by the hour, dreaming. But not now. Now we are pressed for time. Now we are here to consider facts; now we must fix our eyes upon the

10  procession—the procession of the sons of educated men.

There they go, our brothers who have been educated at public schools and universities, mounting those steps, passing in and out of those

15  doors, ascending those pulpits, preaching, teaching, administering justice, practising medicine, transacting business, making money. It is a solemn sight always—a procession, like a caravanserai crossing a desert.... But now, for the past twenty

20  years or so, it is no longer a sight merely, a photograph, or fresco scrawled upon the walls of time, at which we can look with merely an esthetic appreciation. For there, trapesing along at the tail end of the procession, we go ourselves. And that

25 makes a difference. We who have looked so long at the pageant in books, or from a curtained window watched educated men leaving the house at about nine-thirty to go to an office, returning to the house at about six-thirty from an office, need look passively

30  no longer. We too can leave the house, can mount those steps, pass in and out of those doors,... make money, administer justice.... We who now agitate these humble pens may in another century or two speak from a pulpit. Nobody will dare contradict us

35  then; we shall be the mouthpieces of the divine spirit—a solemn thought, is it not? Who can say whether, as time goes on, we may not dress in military uniform, with gold lace on our breasts, swords at our sides, and something like the old

40  family coal-scuttle on our heads, save that that venerable object was never decorated with plumes of white horsehair. You laugh—indeed the shadow of the private house still makes those dresses look a little queer. We have worn private clothes so

45  long.... But we have not come here to laugh, or to

talk of fashions—men’s and women’s. We are here, on the bridge, to ask ourselves certain questions.

And they are very important questions; and we have very little time in which to answer them. The

50  questions that we have to ask and to answer about that procession during this moment of transition are so important that they may well change the lives of all men and women for ever. For we have to ask ourselves, here and now, do we wish to join that

55  procession, or don’t we? On what terms shall we join that procession? Above all, where is it leading us, the procession of educated men? The moment is short; it may last five years; ten years, or perhaps only a matter of a few months longer.... But, you will

60  object, you have no time to think; you have your battles to fight, your rent to pay, your bazaars to organize. That excuse shall not serve you, Madam. As you know from your own experience, and there are facts that prove it, the daughters of educated men

65  have always done their thinking from hand to mouth; not under green lamps at study tables in the cloisters of secluded colleges. They have thought while they stirred the pot, while they rocked the cradle. It was thus that they won us the right to our

70  brand-new sixpence. It falls to us now to go on thinking; how are we to spend that sixpence? Think we must. Let us think in offices; in omnibuses; while we are standing in the crowd watching Coronations and Lord Mayor’s Shows; let us think... in the

75  gallery of the House of Commons; in the Law Courts; let us think at baptisms and marriages and funerals. Let us never cease from thinking—what is this “civilization” in which we find ourselves? What are these ceremonies and why should we take part in

80  them? What are these professions and why should we make money out of them? Where in short is it leading us, the procession of the sons of educated men?

Follow the money and you will end up in space. That’s the message from a first-of-its-kind forum on mining beyond Earth.

Convened in Sydney by the Australian Centre for

5 Space Engineering Research, the event brought together mining companies, robotics experts, lunar scientists, and government agencies that are all working to make space mining a reality.

The forum comes hot on the heels of the

10  2012 unveiling of two private asteroid-mining firms. Planetary Resources of Washington says it will launch its first prospecting telescopes in two years, while Deep Space Industries of Virginia hopes to be harvesting metals from asteroids by 2020. Another

15  commercial venture that sprung up in 2012, Golden Spike of Colorado, will be offering trips to the moon, including to potential lunar miners.

Within a few decades, these firms may be

meeting earthly demands for precious metals, such as

20  platinum and gold, and the rare earth elements vital for personal electronics, such as yttrium and lanthanum. But like the gold rush pioneers who transformed the western United States, the first space miners won’t just enrich themselves. They also hope

25  to build an off-planet economy free of any bonds with Earth, in which the materials extracted and processed from the moon and asteroids are delivered for space-based projects.

In this scenario, water mined from other

30  worlds could become the most desired commodity. “In the desert, what’s worth more: a kilogram of gold or a kilogram of water?” asks Kris Zacny of HoneyBee Robotics in New York. “Gold is useless. Water will let you live.”

35            Water ice from the moon’s poles could be sent to astronauts on the International Space Station for drinking or as a radiation shield. Splitting water into oxygen and hydrogen makes spacecraft fuel, so

ice-rich asteroids could become interplanetary

40 refuelling stations

Companies are eyeing the iron, silicon, and aluminium in lunar soil and asteroids, which could be used in 3D printers to make spare parts or machinery. Others want to turn space dirt into

45  concrete for landing pads, shelters, and roads.

Passage 2

The motivation for deep-space travel is shifting from discovery to economics. The past year has seen a flurry of proposals aimed at bringing celestial riches down to Earth. No doubt this will make a few

50 billionaires even wealthier, but we all stand to gain:

the mineral bounty and spin-off technologies could enrich us all.

But before the miners start firing up their rockets, we should pause for thought. At first glance, space

55  mining seems to sidestep most environmental concerns: there is (probably!) no life on asteroids, and thus no habitats to trash. But its consequences

—both here on Earth and in space—merit careful consideration.

60            Part of this is about principles. Some will argue that space’s “magnificent desolation” is not ours to despoil, just as they argue that our own planet’s poles should remain pristine. Others will suggest that glutting ourselves on space’s riches is not an

65  acceptable alternative to developing more sustainable ways of earthly life.

History suggests that those will be hard lines to hold, and it may be difficult to persuade the public that such barren environments are worth preserving.

70  After all, they exist in vast abundance, and even fewer people will experience them than have walked through Antarctica’s icy landscapes.

There’s also the emerging off-world economy to consider. The resources that are valuable in orbit and

75  beyond may be very different to those we prize on Earth. Questions of their stewardship have barely been broached—and the relevant legal and regulatory framework is fragmentary, to put it mildly.

Space miners, like their earthly counterparts, are

80  often reluctant to engage with such questions.

One speaker at last week’s space-mining forum in Sydney, Australia, concluded with a plea that regulation should be avoided. But miners have much to gain from a broad agreement on the for-profit

85 exploitation of space. Without consensus, claims will be disputed, investments risky, and the gains made insecure. It is in all of our long-term interests to seek one out.

Follow the money and you will end up in space. That’s the message from a first-of-its-kind forum on mining beyond Earth.

Convened in Sydney by the Australian Centre for

5 Space Engineering Research, the event brought together mining companies, robotics experts, lunar scientists, and government agencies that are all working to make space mining a reality.

The forum comes hot on the heels of the

10  2012 unveiling of two private asteroid-mining firms. Planetary Resources of Washington says it will launch its first prospecting telescopes in two years, while Deep Space Industries of Virginia hopes to be harvesting metals from asteroids by 2020. Another

15  commercial venture that sprung up in 2012, Golden Spike of Colorado, will be offering trips to the moon, including to potential lunar miners.

Within a few decades, these firms may be

meeting earthly demands for precious metals, such as

20  platinum and gold, and the rare earth elements vital for personal electronics, such as yttrium and lanthanum. But like the gold rush pioneers who transformed the western United States, the first space miners won’t just enrich themselves. They also hope

25  to build an off-planet economy free of any bonds with Earth, in which the materials extracted and processed from the moon and asteroids are delivered for space-based projects.

In this scenario, water mined from other

30  worlds could become the most desired commodity. “In the desert, what’s worth more: a kilogram of gold or a kilogram of water?” asks Kris Zacny of HoneyBee Robotics in New York. “Gold is useless. Water will let you live.”

35            Water ice from the moon’s poles could be sent to astronauts on the International Space Station for drinking or as a radiation shield. Splitting water into oxygen and hydrogen makes spacecraft fuel, so

ice-rich asteroids could become interplanetary

40 refuelling stations

Companies are eyeing the iron, silicon, and aluminium in lunar soil and asteroids, which could be used in 3D printers to make spare parts or machinery. Others want to turn space dirt into

45  concrete for landing pads, shelters, and roads.

Passage 2

The motivation for deep-space travel is shifting from discovery to economics. The past year has seen a flurry of proposals aimed at bringing celestial riches down to Earth. No doubt this will make a few

50 billionaires even wealthier, but we all stand to gain:

the mineral bounty and spin-off technologies could enrich us all.

But before the miners start firing up their rockets, we should pause for thought. At first glance, space

55  mining seems to sidestep most environmental concerns: there is (probably!) no life on asteroids, and thus no habitats to trash. But its consequences

—both here on Earth and in space—merit careful consideration.

60            Part of this is about principles. Some will argue that space’s “magnificent desolation” is not ours to despoil, just as they argue that our own planet’s poles should remain pristine. Others will suggest that glutting ourselves on space’s riches is not an

65  acceptable alternative to developing more sustainable ways of earthly life.

History suggests that those will be hard lines to hold, and it may be difficult to persuade the public that such barren environments are worth preserving.

70  After all, they exist in vast abundance, and even fewer people will experience them than have walked through Antarctica’s icy landscapes.

There’s also the emerging off-world economy to consider. The resources that are valuable in orbit and

75  beyond may be very different to those we prize on Earth. Questions of their stewardship have barely been broached—and the relevant legal and regulatory framework is fragmentary, to put it mildly.

Space miners, like their earthly counterparts, are

80  often reluctant to engage with such questions.

One speaker at last week’s space-mining forum in Sydney, Australia, concluded with a plea that regulation should be avoided. But miners have much to gain from a broad agreement on the for-profit

85 exploitation of space. Without consensus, claims will be disputed, investments risky, and the gains made insecure. It is in all of our long-term interests to seek one out.

Follow the money and you will end up in space. That’s the message from a first-of-its-kind forum on mining beyond Earth.

Convened in Sydney by the Australian Centre for

5 Space Engineering Research, the event brought together mining companies, robotics experts, lunar scientists, and government agencies that are all working to make space mining a reality.

The forum comes hot on the heels of the

10  2012 unveiling of two private asteroid-mining firms. Planetary Resources of Washington says it will launch its first prospecting telescopes in two years, while Deep Space Industries of Virginia hopes to be harvesting metals from asteroids by 2020. Another

15  commercial venture that sprung up in 2012, Golden Spike of Colorado, will be offering trips to the moon, including to potential lunar miners.

Within a few decades, these firms may be

meeting earthly demands for precious metals, such as

20  platinum and gold, and the rare earth elements vital for personal electronics, such as yttrium and lanthanum. But like the gold rush pioneers who transformed the western United States, the first space miners won’t just enrich themselves. They also hope

25  to build an off-planet economy free of any bonds with Earth, in which the materials extracted and processed from the moon and asteroids are delivered for space-based projects.

In this scenario, water mined from other

30  worlds could become the most desired commodity. “In the desert, what’s worth more: a kilogram of gold or a kilogram of water?” asks Kris Zacny of HoneyBee Robotics in New York. “Gold is useless. Water will let you live.”

35            Water ice from the moon’s poles could be sent to astronauts on the International Space Station for drinking or as a radiation shield. Splitting water into oxygen and hydrogen makes spacecraft fuel, so

ice-rich asteroids could become interplanetary

40 refuelling stations

Companies are eyeing the iron, silicon, and aluminium in lunar soil and asteroids, which could be used in 3D printers to make spare parts or machinery. Others want to turn space dirt into

45  concrete for landing pads, shelters, and roads.

Passage 2

The motivation for deep-space travel is shifting from discovery to economics. The past year has seen a flurry of proposals aimed at bringing celestial riches down to Earth. No doubt this will make a few

50 billionaires even wealthier, but we all stand to gain:

the mineral bounty and spin-off technologies could enrich us all.

But before the miners start firing up their rockets, we should pause for thought. At first glance, space

55  mining seems to sidestep most environmental concerns: there is (probably!) no life on asteroids, and thus no habitats to trash. But its consequences

—both here on Earth and in space—merit careful consideration.

60            Part of this is about principles. Some will argue that space’s “magnificent desolation” is not ours to despoil, just as they argue that our own planet’s poles should remain pristine. Others will suggest that glutting ourselves on space’s riches is not an

65  acceptable alternative to developing more sustainable ways of earthly life.

History suggests that those will be hard lines to hold, and it may be difficult to persuade the public that such barren environments are worth preserving.

70  After all, they exist in vast abundance, and even fewer people will experience them than have walked through Antarctica’s icy landscapes.

There’s also the emerging off-world economy to consider. The resources that are valuable in orbit and

75  beyond may be very different to those we prize on Earth. Questions of their stewardship have barely been broached—and the relevant legal and regulatory framework is fragmentary, to put it mildly.

Space miners, like their earthly counterparts, are

80  often reluctant to engage with such questions.

One speaker at last week’s space-mining forum in Sydney, Australia, concluded with a plea that regulation should be avoided. But miners have much to gain from a broad agreement on the for-profit

85 exploitation of space. Without consensus, claims will be disputed, investments risky, and the gains made insecure. It is in all of our long-term interests to seek one out.

Follow the money and you will end up in space. That’s the message from a first-of-its-kind forum on mining beyond Earth.

Convened in Sydney by the Australian Centre for

5 Space Engineering Research, the event brought together mining companies, robotics experts, lunar scientists, and government agencies that are all working to make space mining a reality.

The forum comes hot on the heels of the

10  2012 unveiling of two private asteroid-mining firms. Planetary Resources of Washington says it will launch its first prospecting telescopes in two years, while Deep Space Industries of Virginia hopes to be harvesting metals from asteroids by 2020. Another

15  commercial venture that sprung up in 2012, Golden Spike of Colorado, will be offering trips to the moon, including to potential lunar miners.

Within a few decades, these firms may be

meeting earthly demands for precious metals, such as

20  platinum and gold, and the rare earth elements vital for personal electronics, such as yttrium and lanthanum. But like the gold rush pioneers who transformed the western United States, the first space miners won’t just enrich themselves. They also hope

25  to build an off-planet economy free of any bonds with Earth, in which the materials extracted and processed from the moon and asteroids are delivered for space-based projects.

In this scenario, water mined from other

30  worlds could become the most desired commodity. “In the desert, what’s worth more: a kilogram of gold or a kilogram of water?” asks Kris Zacny of HoneyBee Robotics in New York. “Gold is useless. Water will let you live.”

35            Water ice from the moon’s poles could be sent to astronauts on the International Space Station for drinking or as a radiation shield. Splitting water into oxygen and hydrogen makes spacecraft fuel, so

ice-rich asteroids could become interplanetary

40 refuelling stations

Companies are eyeing the iron, silicon, and aluminium in lunar soil and asteroids, which could be used in 3D printers to make spare parts or machinery. Others want to turn space dirt into

45  concrete for landing pads, shelters, and roads.

Passage 2

The motivation for deep-space travel is shifting from discovery to economics. The past year has seen a flurry of proposals aimed at bringing celestial riches down to Earth. No doubt this will make a few

50 billionaires even wealthier, but we all stand to gain:

the mineral bounty and spin-off technologies could enrich us all.

But before the miners start firing up their rockets, we should pause for thought. At first glance, space

55  mining seems to sidestep most environmental concerns: there is (probably!) no life on asteroids, and thus no habitats to trash. But its consequences

—both here on Earth and in space—merit careful consideration.

60            Part of this is about principles. Some will argue that space’s “magnificent desolation” is not ours to despoil, just as they argue that our own planet’s poles should remain pristine. Others will suggest that glutting ourselves on space’s riches is not an

65  acceptable alternative to developing more sustainable ways of earthly life.

History suggests that those will be hard lines to hold, and it may be difficult to persuade the public that such barren environments are worth preserving.

70  After all, they exist in vast abundance, and even fewer people will experience them than have walked through Antarctica’s icy landscapes.

There’s also the emerging off-world economy to consider. The resources that are valuable in orbit and

75  beyond may be very different to those we prize on Earth. Questions of their stewardship have barely been broached—and the relevant legal and regulatory framework is fragmentary, to put it mildly.

Space miners, like their earthly counterparts, are

80  often reluctant to engage with such questions.

One speaker at last week’s space-mining forum in Sydney, Australia, concluded with a plea that regulation should be avoided. But miners have much to gain from a broad agreement on the for-profit

85 exploitation of space. Without consensus, claims will be disputed, investments risky, and the gains made insecure. It is in all of our long-term interests to seek one out.

Follow the money and you will end up in space. That’s the message from a first-of-its-kind forum on mining beyond Earth.

Convened in Sydney by the Australian Centre for

5 Space Engineering Research, the event brought together mining companies, robotics experts, lunar scientists, and government agencies that are all working to make space mining a reality.

The forum comes hot on the heels of the

10  2012 unveiling of two private asteroid-mining firms. Planetary Resources of Washington says it will launch its first prospecting telescopes in two years, while Deep Space Industries of Virginia hopes to be harvesting metals from asteroids by 2020. Another

15  commercial venture that sprung up in 2012, Golden Spike of Colorado, will be offering trips to the moon, including to potential lunar miners.

Within a few decades, these firms may be

meeting earthly demands for precious metals, such as

20  platinum and gold, and the rare earth elements vital for personal electronics, such as yttrium and lanthanum. But like the gold rush pioneers who transformed the western United States, the first space miners won’t just enrich themselves. They also hope

25  to build an off-planet economy free of any bonds with Earth, in which the materials extracted and processed from the moon and asteroids are delivered for space-based projects.

In this scenario, water mined from other

30  worlds could become the most desired commodity. “In the desert, what’s worth more: a kilogram of gold or a kilogram of water?” asks Kris Zacny of HoneyBee Robotics in New York. “Gold is useless. Water will let you live.”

35            Water ice from the moon’s poles could be sent to astronauts on the International Space Station for drinking or as a radiation shield. Splitting water into oxygen and hydrogen makes spacecraft fuel, so

ice-rich asteroids could become interplanetary

40 refuelling stations

Companies are eyeing the iron, silicon, and aluminium in lunar soil and asteroids, which could be used in 3D printers to make spare parts or machinery. Others want to turn space dirt into

45  concrete for landing pads, shelters, and roads.

Passage 2

The motivation for deep-space travel is shifting from discovery to economics. The past year has seen a flurry of proposals aimed at bringing celestial riches down to Earth. No doubt this will make a few

50 billionaires even wealthier, but we all stand to gain:

the mineral bounty and spin-off technologies could enrich us all.

But before the miners start firing up their rockets, we should pause for thought. At first glance, space

55  mining seems to sidestep most environmental concerns: there is (probably!) no life on asteroids, and thus no habitats to trash. But its consequences

—both here on Earth and in space—merit careful consideration.

60            Part of this is about principles. Some will argue that space’s “magnificent desolation” is not ours to despoil, just as they argue that our own planet’s poles should remain pristine. Others will suggest that glutting ourselves on space’s riches is not an

65  acceptable alternative to developing more sustainable ways of earthly life.

History suggests that those will be hard lines to hold, and it may be difficult to persuade the public that such barren environments are worth preserving.

70  After all, they exist in vast abundance, and even fewer people will experience them than have walked through Antarctica’s icy landscapes.

There’s also the emerging off-world economy to consider. The resources that are valuable in orbit and

75  beyond may be very different to those we prize on Earth. Questions of their stewardship have barely been broached—and the relevant legal and regulatory framework is fragmentary, to put it mildly.

Space miners, like their earthly counterparts, are

80  often reluctant to engage with such questions.

One speaker at last week’s space-mining forum in Sydney, Australia, concluded with a plea that regulation should be avoided. But miners have much to gain from a broad agreement on the for-profit

85 exploitation of space. Without consensus, claims will be disputed, investments risky, and the gains made insecure. It is in all of our long-term interests to seek one out.

Follow the money and you will end up in space. That’s the message from a first-of-its-kind forum on mining beyond Earth.

Convened in Sydney by the Australian Centre for

5 Space Engineering Research, the event brought together mining companies, robotics experts, lunar scientists, and government agencies that are all working to make space mining a reality.

The forum comes hot on the heels of the

10  2012 unveiling of two private asteroid-mining firms. Planetary Resources of Washington says it will launch its first prospecting telescopes in two years, while Deep Space Industries of Virginia hopes to be harvesting metals from asteroids by 2020. Another

15  commercial venture that sprung up in 2012, Golden Spike of Colorado, will be offering trips to the moon, including to potential lunar miners.

Within a few decades, these firms may be

meeting earthly demands for precious metals, such as

20  platinum and gold, and the rare earth elements vital for personal electronics, such as yttrium and lanthanum. But like the gold rush pioneers who transformed the western United States, the first space miners won’t just enrich themselves. They also hope

25  to build an off-planet economy free of any bonds with Earth, in which the materials extracted and processed from the moon and asteroids are delivered for space-based projects.

In this scenario, water mined from other

30  worlds could become the most desired commodity. “In the desert, what’s worth more: a kilogram of gold or a kilogram of water?” asks Kris Zacny of HoneyBee Robotics in New York. “Gold is useless. Water will let you live.”

35            Water ice from the moon’s poles could be sent to astronauts on the International Space Station for drinking or as a radiation shield. Splitting water into oxygen and hydrogen makes spacecraft fuel, so

ice-rich asteroids could become interplanetary

40 refuelling stations

Companies are eyeing the iron, silicon, and aluminium in lunar soil and asteroids, which could be used in 3D printers to make spare parts or machinery. Others want to turn space dirt into

45  concrete for landing pads, shelters, and roads.

Passage 2

The motivation for deep-space travel is shifting from discovery to economics. The past year has seen a flurry of proposals aimed at bringing celestial riches down to Earth. No doubt this will make a few

50 billionaires even wealthier, but we all stand to gain:

the mineral bounty and spin-off technologies could enrich us all.

But before the miners start firing up their rockets, we should pause for thought. At first glance, space

55  mining seems to sidestep most environmental concerns: there is (probably!) no life on asteroids, and thus no habitats to trash. But its consequences

—both here on Earth and in space—merit careful consideration.

60            Part of this is about principles. Some will argue that space’s “magnificent desolation” is not ours to despoil, just as they argue that our own planet’s poles should remain pristine. Others will suggest that glutting ourselves on space’s riches is not an

65  acceptable alternative to developing more sustainable ways of earthly life.

History suggests that those will be hard lines to hold, and it may be difficult to persuade the public that such barren environments are worth preserving.

70  After all, they exist in vast abundance, and even fewer people will experience them than have walked through Antarctica’s icy landscapes.

There’s also the emerging off-world economy to consider. The resources that are valuable in orbit and

75  beyond may be very different to those we prize on Earth. Questions of their stewardship have barely been broached—and the relevant legal and regulatory framework is fragmentary, to put it mildly.

Space miners, like their earthly counterparts, are

80  often reluctant to engage with such questions.

One speaker at last week’s space-mining forum in Sydney, Australia, concluded with a plea that regulation should be avoided. But miners have much to gain from a broad agreement on the for-profit

85 exploitation of space. Without consensus, claims will be disputed, investments risky, and the gains made insecure. It is in all of our long-term interests to seek one out.

Follow the money and you will end up in space. That’s the message from a first-of-its-kind forum on mining beyond Earth.

Convened in Sydney by the Australian Centre for

5 Space Engineering Research, the event brought together mining companies, robotics experts, lunar scientists, and government agencies that are all working to make space mining a reality.

The forum comes hot on the heels of the

10  2012 unveiling of two private asteroid-mining firms. Planetary Resources of Washington says it will launch its first prospecting telescopes in two years, while Deep Space Industries of Virginia hopes to be harvesting metals from asteroids by 2020. Another

15  commercial venture that sprung up in 2012, Golden Spike of Colorado, will be offering trips to the moon, including to potential lunar miners.

Within a few decades, these firms may be

meeting earthly demands for precious metals, such as

20  platinum and gold, and the rare earth elements vital for personal electronics, such as yttrium and lanthanum. But like the gold rush pioneers who transformed the western United States, the first space miners won’t just enrich themselves. They also hope

25  to build an off-planet economy free of any bonds with Earth, in which the materials extracted and processed from the moon and asteroids are delivered for space-based projects.

In this scenario, water mined from other

30  worlds could become the most desired commodity. “In the desert, what’s worth more: a kilogram of gold or a kilogram of water?” asks Kris Zacny of HoneyBee Robotics in New York. “Gold is useless. Water will let you live.”

35            Water ice from the moon’s poles could be sent to astronauts on the International Space Station for drinking or as a radiation shield. Splitting water into oxygen and hydrogen makes spacecraft fuel, so

ice-rich asteroids could become interplanetary

40 refuelling stations

Companies are eyeing the iron, silicon, and aluminium in lunar soil and asteroids, which could be used in 3D printers to make spare parts or machinery. Others want to turn space dirt into

45  concrete for landing pads, shelters, and roads.

Passage 2

The motivation for deep-space travel is shifting from discovery to economics. The past year has seen a flurry of proposals aimed at bringing celestial riches down to Earth. No doubt this will make a few

50 billionaires even wealthier, but we all stand to gain:

the mineral bounty and spin-off technologies could enrich us all.

But before the miners start firing up their rockets, we should pause for thought. At first glance, space

55  mining seems to sidestep most environmental concerns: there is (probably!) no life on asteroids, and thus no habitats to trash. But its consequences

—both here on Earth and in space—merit careful consideration.

60            Part of this is about principles. Some will argue that space’s “magnificent desolation” is not ours to despoil, just as they argue that our own planet’s poles should remain pristine. Others will suggest that glutting ourselves on space’s riches is not an

65  acceptable alternative to developing more sustainable ways of earthly life.

History suggests that those will be hard lines to hold, and it may be difficult to persuade the public that such barren environments are worth preserving.

70  After all, they exist in vast abundance, and even fewer people will experience them than have walked through Antarctica’s icy landscapes.

There’s also the emerging off-world economy to consider. The resources that are valuable in orbit and

75  beyond may be very different to those we prize on Earth. Questions of their stewardship have barely been broached—and the relevant legal and regulatory framework is fragmentary, to put it mildly.

Space miners, like their earthly counterparts, are

80  often reluctant to engage with such questions.

One speaker at last week’s space-mining forum in Sydney, Australia, concluded with a plea that regulation should be avoided. But miners have much to gain from a broad agreement on the for-profit

85 exploitation of space. Without consensus, claims will be disputed, investments risky, and the gains made insecure. It is in all of our long-term interests to seek one out.

Follow the money and you will end up in space. That’s the message from a first-of-its-kind forum on mining beyond Earth.

Convened in Sydney by the Australian Centre for

5 Space Engineering Research, the event brought together mining companies, robotics experts, lunar scientists, and government agencies that are all working to make space mining a reality.

The forum comes hot on the heels of the

10  2012 unveiling of two private asteroid-mining firms. Planetary Resources of Washington says it will launch its first prospecting telescopes in two years, while Deep Space Industries of Virginia hopes to be harvesting metals from asteroids by 2020. Another

15  commercial venture that sprung up in 2012, Golden Spike of Colorado, will be offering trips to the moon, including to potential lunar miners.

Within a few decades, these firms may be

meeting earthly demands for precious metals, such as

20  platinum and gold, and the rare earth elements vital for personal electronics, such as yttrium and lanthanum. But like the gold rush pioneers who transformed the western United States, the first space miners won’t just enrich themselves. They also hope

25  to build an off-planet economy free of any bonds with Earth, in which the materials extracted and processed from the moon and asteroids are delivered for space-based projects.

In this scenario, water mined from other

30  worlds could become the most desired commodity. “In the desert, what’s worth more: a kilogram of gold or a kilogram of water?” asks Kris Zacny of HoneyBee Robotics in New York. “Gold is useless. Water will let you live.”

35            Water ice from the moon’s poles could be sent to astronauts on the International Space Station for drinking or as a radiation shield. Splitting water into oxygen and hydrogen makes spacecraft fuel, so

ice-rich asteroids could become interplanetary

40 refuelling stations

Companies are eyeing the iron, silicon, and aluminium in lunar soil and asteroids, which could be used in 3D printers to make spare parts or machinery. Others want to turn space dirt into

45  concrete for landing pads, shelters, and roads.

Passage 2

The motivation for deep-space travel is shifting from discovery to economics. The past year has seen a flurry of proposals aimed at bringing celestial riches down to Earth. No doubt this will make a few

50 billionaires even wealthier, but we all stand to gain:

the mineral bounty and spin-off technologies could enrich us all.

But before the miners start firing up their rockets, we should pause for thought. At first glance, space

55  mining seems to sidestep most environmental concerns: there is (probably!) no life on asteroids, and thus no habitats to trash. But its consequences

—both here on Earth and in space—merit careful consideration.

60            Part of this is about principles. Some will argue that space’s “magnificent desolation” is not ours to despoil, just as they argue that our own planet’s poles should remain pristine. Others will suggest that glutting ourselves on space’s riches is not an

65  acceptable alternative to developing more sustainable ways of earthly life.

History suggests that those will be hard lines to hold, and it may be difficult to persuade the public that such barren environments are worth preserving.

70  After all, they exist in vast abundance, and even fewer people will experience them than have walked through Antarctica’s icy landscapes.

There’s also the emerging off-world economy to consider. The resources that are valuable in orbit and

75  beyond may be very different to those we prize on Earth. Questions of their stewardship have barely been broached—and the relevant legal and regulatory framework is fragmentary, to put it mildly.

Space miners, like their earthly counterparts, are

80  often reluctant to engage with such questions.

One speaker at last week’s space-mining forum in Sydney, Australia, concluded with a plea that regulation should be avoided. But miners have much to gain from a broad agreement on the for-profit

85 exploitation of space. Without consensus, claims will be disputed, investments risky, and the gains made insecure. It is in all of our long-term interests to seek one out.

Follow the money and you will end up in space. That’s the message from a first-of-its-kind forum on mining beyond Earth.

Convened in Sydney by the Australian Centre for

5 Space Engineering Research, the event brought together mining companies, robotics experts, lunar scientists, and government agencies that are all working to make space mining a reality.

The forum comes hot on the heels of the

10  2012 unveiling of two private asteroid-mining firms. Planetary Resources of Washington says it will launch its first prospecting telescopes in two years, while Deep Space Industries of Virginia hopes to be harvesting metals from asteroids by 2020. Another

15  commercial venture that sprung up in 2012, Golden Spike of Colorado, will be offering trips to the moon, including to potential lunar miners.

Within a few decades, these firms may be

meeting earthly demands for precious metals, such as

20  platinum and gold, and the rare earth elements vital for personal electronics, such as yttrium and lanthanum. But like the gold rush pioneers who transformed the western United States, the first space miners won’t just enrich themselves. They also hope

25  to build an off-planet economy free of any bonds with Earth, in which the materials extracted and processed from the moon and asteroids are delivered for space-based projects.

In this scenario, water mined from other

30  worlds could become the most desired commodity. “In the desert, what’s worth more: a kilogram of gold or a kilogram of water?” asks Kris Zacny of HoneyBee Robotics in New York. “Gold is useless. Water will let you live.”

35            Water ice from the moon’s poles could be sent to astronauts on the International Space Station for drinking or as a radiation shield. Splitting water into oxygen and hydrogen makes spacecraft fuel, so

ice-rich asteroids could become interplanetary

40 refuelling stations

Companies are eyeing the iron, silicon, and aluminium in lunar soil and asteroids, which could be used in 3D printers to make spare parts or machinery. Others want to turn space dirt into

45  concrete for landing pads, shelters, and roads.

Passage 2

The motivation for deep-space travel is shifting from discovery to economics. The past year has seen a flurry of proposals aimed at bringing celestial riches down to Earth. No doubt this will make a few

50 billionaires even wealthier, but we all stand to gain:

the mineral bounty and spin-off technologies could enrich us all.

But before the miners start firing up their rockets, we should pause for thought. At first glance, space

55  mining seems to sidestep most environmental concerns: there is (probably!) no life on asteroids, and thus no habitats to trash. But its consequences

—both here on Earth and in space—merit careful consideration.

60            Part of this is about principles. Some will argue that space’s “magnificent desolation” is not ours to despoil, just as they argue that our own planet’s poles should remain pristine. Others will suggest that glutting ourselves on space’s riches is not an

65  acceptable alternative to developing more sustainable ways of earthly life.

History suggests that those will be hard lines to hold, and it may be difficult to persuade the public that such barren environments are worth preserving.

70  After all, they exist in vast abundance, and even fewer people will experience them than have walked through Antarctica’s icy landscapes.

There’s also the emerging off-world economy to consider. The resources that are valuable in orbit and

75  beyond may be very different to those we prize on Earth. Questions of their stewardship have barely been broached—and the relevant legal and regulatory framework is fragmentary, to put it mildly.

Space miners, like their earthly counterparts, are

80  often reluctant to engage with such questions.

One speaker at last week’s space-mining forum in Sydney, Australia, concluded with a plea that regulation should be avoided. But miners have much to gain from a broad agreement on the for-profit

85 exploitation of space. Without consensus, claims will be disputed, investments risky, and the gains made insecure. It is in all of our long-term interests to seek one out.

Follow the money and you will end up in space. That’s the message from a first-of-its-kind forum on mining beyond Earth.

Convened in Sydney by the Australian Centre for

5 Space Engineering Research, the event brought together mining companies, robotics experts, lunar scientists, and government agencies that are all working to make space mining a reality.

The forum comes hot on the heels of the

10  2012 unveiling of two private asteroid-mining firms. Planetary Resources of Washington says it will launch its first prospecting telescopes in two years, while Deep Space Industries of Virginia hopes to be harvesting metals from asteroids by 2020. Another

15  commercial venture that sprung up in 2012, Golden Spike of Colorado, will be offering trips to the moon, including to potential lunar miners.

Within a few decades, these firms may be

meeting earthly demands for precious metals, such as

20  platinum and gold, and the rare earth elements vital for personal electronics, such as yttrium and lanthanum. But like the gold rush pioneers who transformed the western United States, the first space miners won’t just enrich themselves. They also hope

25  to build an off-planet economy free of any bonds with Earth, in which the materials extracted and processed from the moon and asteroids are delivered for space-based projects.

In this scenario, water mined from other

30  worlds could become the most desired commodity. “In the desert, what’s worth more: a kilogram of gold or a kilogram of water?” asks Kris Zacny of HoneyBee Robotics in New York. “Gold is useless. Water will let you live.”

35            Water ice from the moon’s poles could be sent to astronauts on the International Space Station for drinking or as a radiation shield. Splitting water into oxygen and hydrogen makes spacecraft fuel, so

ice-rich asteroids could become interplanetary

40 refuelling stations

Companies are eyeing the iron, silicon, and aluminium in lunar soil and asteroids, which could be used in 3D printers to make spare parts or machinery. Others want to turn space dirt into

45  concrete for landing pads, shelters, and roads.

Passage 2

The motivation for deep-space travel is shifting from discovery to economics. The past year has seen a flurry of proposals aimed at bringing celestial riches down to Earth. No doubt this will make a few

50 billionaires even wealthier, but we all stand to gain:

the mineral bounty and spin-off technologies could enrich us all.

But before the miners start firing up their rockets, we should pause for thought. At first glance, space

55  mining seems to sidestep most environmental concerns: there is (probably!) no life on asteroids, and thus no habitats to trash. But its consequences

—both here on Earth and in space—merit careful consideration.

60            Part of this is about principles. Some will argue that space’s “magnificent desolation” is not ours to despoil, just as they argue that our own planet’s poles should remain pristine. Others will suggest that glutting ourselves on space’s riches is not an

65  acceptable alternative to developing more sustainable ways of earthly life.

History suggests that those will be hard lines to hold, and it may be difficult to persuade the public that such barren environments are worth preserving.

70  After all, they exist in vast abundance, and even fewer people will experience them than have walked through Antarctica’s icy landscapes.

There’s also the emerging off-world economy to consider. The resources that are valuable in orbit and

75  beyond may be very different to those we prize on Earth. Questions of their stewardship have barely been broached—and the relevant legal and regulatory framework is fragmentary, to put it mildly.

Space miners, like their earthly counterparts, are

80  often reluctant to engage with such questions.

One speaker at last week’s space-mining forum in Sydney, Australia, concluded with a plea that regulation should be avoided. But miners have much to gain from a broad agreement on the for-profit

85 exploitation of space. Without consensus, claims will be disputed, investments risky, and the gains made insecure. It is in all of our long-term interests to seek one out.

Follow the money and you will end up in space. That’s the message from a first-of-its-kind forum on mining beyond Earth.

Convened in Sydney by the Australian Centre for

5 Space Engineering Research, the event brought together mining companies, robotics experts, lunar scientists, and government agencies that are all working to make space mining a reality.

The forum comes hot on the heels of the

10  2012 unveiling of two private asteroid-mining firms. Planetary Resources of Washington says it will launch its first prospecting telescopes in two years, while Deep Space Industries of Virginia hopes to be harvesting metals from asteroids by 2020. Another

15  commercial venture that sprung up in 2012, Golden Spike of Colorado, will be offering trips to the moon, including to potential lunar miners.

Within a few decades, these firms may be

meeting earthly demands for precious metals, such as

20  platinum and gold, and the rare earth elements vital for personal electronics, such as yttrium and lanthanum. But like the gold rush pioneers who transformed the western United States, the first space miners won’t just enrich themselves. They also hope

25  to build an off-planet economy free of any bonds with Earth, in which the materials extracted and processed from the moon and asteroids are delivered for space-based projects.

In this scenario, water mined from other

30  worlds could become the most desired commodity. “In the desert, what’s worth more: a kilogram of gold or a kilogram of water?” asks Kris Zacny of HoneyBee Robotics in New York. “Gold is useless. Water will let you live.”

35            Water ice from the moon’s poles could be sent to astronauts on the International Space Station for drinking or as a radiation shield. Splitting water into oxygen and hydrogen makes spacecraft fuel, so

ice-rich asteroids could become interplanetary

40 refuelling stations

Companies are eyeing the iron, silicon, and aluminium in lunar soil and asteroids, which could be used in 3D printers to make spare parts or machinery. Others want to turn space dirt into

45  concrete for landing pads, shelters, and roads.

Passage 2

The motivation for deep-space travel is shifting from discovery to economics. The past year has seen a flurry of proposals aimed at bringing celestial riches down to Earth. No doubt this will make a few

50 billionaires even wealthier, but we all stand to gain:

the mineral bounty and spin-off technologies could enrich us all.

But before the miners start firing up their rockets, we should pause for thought. At first glance, space

55  mining seems to sidestep most environmental concerns: there is (probably!) no life on asteroids, and thus no habitats to trash. But its consequences

—both here on Earth and in space—merit careful consideration.

60            Part of this is about principles. Some will argue that space’s “magnificent desolation” is not ours to despoil, just as they argue that our own planet’s poles should remain pristine. Others will suggest that glutting ourselves on space’s riches is not an

65  acceptable alternative to developing more sustainable ways of earthly life.

History suggests that those will be hard lines to hold, and it may be difficult to persuade the public that such barren environments are worth preserving.

70  After all, they exist in vast abundance, and even fewer people will experience them than have walked through Antarctica’s icy landscapes.

There’s also the emerging off-world economy to consider. The resources that are valuable in orbit and

75  beyond may be very different to those we prize on Earth. Questions of their stewardship have barely been broached—and the relevant legal and regulatory framework is fragmentary, to put it mildly.

Space miners, like their earthly counterparts, are

80  often reluctant to engage with such questions.

One speaker at last week’s space-mining forum in Sydney, Australia, concluded with a plea that regulation should be avoided. But miners have much to gain from a broad agreement on the for-profit

85 exploitation of space. Without consensus, claims will be disputed, investments risky, and the gains made insecure. It is in all of our long-term interests to seek one out.

Unlike the gold which needed nothing, and must be worshipped in close-locked solitude—which was hidden away from the daylight, was deaf to the song

Line  of birds, and started to no human tones—Eppie was a

5 creature of endless claims and ever-growing desires, seeking and loving sunshine, and living sounds, and living movements; making trial of everything, with trust in new joy, and stirring the human kindness in all eyes that looked on her. The gold had kept his

10  thoughts in an ever-repeated circle, leading to nothing beyond itself; but Eppie was an object compacted of changes and hopes that forced his thoughts onward, and carried them far away from their old eager pacing towards the same blank

15  limit—carried them away to the new things that would come with the coming years, when Eppie would have learned to understand how her father Silas cared for her; and made him look for images of that time in the ties and charities that bound together

20  the families of his neighbors. The gold had asked that

he should sit weaving longer and longer, deafened and blinded more and more to all things except the monotony of his loom and the repetition of his web; but Eppie called him away from his weaving, and

25  made him think all its pauses a holiday, reawakening his senses with her fresh life, even to the old

winter-flies that came crawling forth in the early spring sunshine, and warming him into joy because she had joy.

30            And when the sunshine grew strong and lasting, so that the buttercups were thick in the meadows, Silas might be seen in the sunny mid-day, or in the late afternoon when the shadows were lengthening under the hedgerows, strolling out with uncovered

35  head to carry Eppie beyond the Stone-pits to where the flowers grew, till they reached some favorite bank where he could sit down, while Eppie toddled to pluck the flowers, and make remarks to the winged things that murmured happily above the bright

40 petals, calling “Dad-dad’s” attention continually by bringing him the flowers. Then she would turn her ear to some sudden bird-note, and Silas learned to please her by making signs of hushed stillness, that they might listen for the note to come again: so that

45  when it came, she set up her small back and laughed with gurgling triumph. Sitting on the banks in this way, Silas began to look for the once familiar herbs again; and as the leaves, with their unchanged outline and markings, lay on his palm, there was a sense of

50  crowding remembrances from which he turned away timidly, taking refuge in Eppie’s little world, that lay lightly on his enfeebled spirit.

As the child’s mind was growing into knowledge, his mind was growing into memory: as her life

55  unfolded, his soul, long stupefied in a cold narrow prison, was unfolding too, and trembling gradually into full consciousness.

It was an influence which must gather force with every new year: the tones that stirred Silas’ heart

60  grew articulate, and called for more distinct answers; shapes and sounds grew clearer for Eppie’s eyes and ears, and there was more that “Dad-dad” was imperatively required to notice and account for.

Also, by the time Eppie was three years old, she

65 developed a fine capacity for mischief, and for devising ingenious ways of being troublesome, which found much exercise, not only for Silas’ patience, but for his watchfulness and penetration. Sorely was poor Silas puzzled on such occasions by the incompatible

70 demands of love.

Unlike the gold which needed nothing, and must be worshipped in close-locked solitude—which was hidden away from the daylight, was deaf to the song

Line  of birds, and started to no human tones—Eppie was a

5 creature of endless claims and ever-growing desires, seeking and loving sunshine, and living sounds, and living movements; making trial of everything, with trust in new joy, and stirring the human kindness in all eyes that looked on her. The gold had kept his

10  thoughts in an ever-repeated circle, leading to nothing beyond itself; but Eppie was an object compacted of changes and hopes that forced his thoughts onward, and carried them far away from their old eager pacing towards the same blank

15  limit—carried them away to the new things that would come with the coming years, when Eppie would have learned to understand how her father Silas cared for her; and made him look for images of that time in the ties and charities that bound together

20  the families of his neighbors. The gold had asked that

he should sit weaving longer and longer, deafened and blinded more and more to all things except the monotony of his loom and the repetition of his web; but Eppie called him away from his weaving, and

25  made him think all its pauses a holiday, reawakening his senses with her fresh life, even to the old

winter-flies that came crawling forth in the early spring sunshine, and warming him into joy because she had joy.

30            And when the sunshine grew strong and lasting, so that the buttercups were thick in the meadows, Silas might be seen in the sunny mid-day, or in the late afternoon when the shadows were lengthening under the hedgerows, strolling out with uncovered

35  head to carry Eppie beyond the Stone-pits to where the flowers grew, till they reached some favorite bank where he could sit down, while Eppie toddled to pluck the flowers, and make remarks to the winged things that murmured happily above the bright

40 petals, calling “Dad-dad’s” attention continually by bringing him the flowers. Then she would turn her ear to some sudden bird-note, and Silas learned to please her by making signs of hushed stillness, that they might listen for the note to come again: so that

45  when it came, she set up her small back and laughed with gurgling triumph. Sitting on the banks in this way, Silas began to look for the once familiar herbs again; and as the leaves, with their unchanged outline and markings, lay on his palm, there was a sense of

50  crowding remembrances from which he turned away timidly, taking refuge in Eppie’s little world, that lay lightly on his enfeebled spirit.

As the child’s mind was growing into knowledge, his mind was growing into memory: as her life

55  unfolded, his soul, long stupefied in a cold narrow prison, was unfolding too, and trembling gradually into full consciousness.

It was an influence which must gather force with every new year: the tones that stirred Silas’ heart

60  grew articulate, and called for more distinct answers; shapes and sounds grew clearer for Eppie’s eyes and ears, and there was more that “Dad-dad” was imperatively required to notice and account for.

Also, by the time Eppie was three years old, she

65 developed a fine capacity for mischief, and for devising ingenious ways of being troublesome, which found much exercise, not only for Silas’ patience, but for his watchfulness and penetration. Sorely was poor Silas puzzled on such occasions by the incompatible

70 demands of love.

Unlike the gold which needed nothing, and must be worshipped in close-locked solitude—which was hidden away from the daylight, was deaf to the song

Line  of birds, and started to no human tones—Eppie was a

5 creature of endless claims and ever-growing desires, seeking and loving sunshine, and living sounds, and living movements; making trial of everything, with trust in new joy, and stirring the human kindness in all eyes that looked on her. The gold had kept his

10  thoughts in an ever-repeated circle, leading to nothing beyond itself; but Eppie was an object compacted of changes and hopes that forced his thoughts onward, and carried them far away from their old eager pacing towards the same blank

15  limit—carried them away to the new things that would come with the coming years, when Eppie would have learned to understand how her father Silas cared for her; and made him look for images of that time in the ties and charities that bound together

20  the families of his neighbors. The gold had asked that

he should sit weaving longer and longer, deafened and blinded more and more to all things except the monotony of his loom and the repetition of his web; but Eppie called him away from his weaving, and

25  made him think all its pauses a holiday, reawakening his senses with her fresh life, even to the old

winter-flies that came crawling forth in the early spring sunshine, and warming him into joy because she had joy.

30            And when the sunshine grew strong and lasting, so that the buttercups were thick in the meadows, Silas might be seen in the sunny mid-day, or in the late afternoon when the shadows were lengthening under the hedgerows, strolling out with uncovered

35  head to carry Eppie beyond the Stone-pits to where the flowers grew, till they reached some favorite bank where he could sit down, while Eppie toddled to pluck the flowers, and make remarks to the winged things that murmured happily above the bright

40 petals, calling “Dad-dad’s” attention continually by bringing him the flowers. Then she would turn her ear to some sudden bird-note, and Silas learned to please her by making signs of hushed stillness, that they might listen for the note to come again: so that

45  when it came, she set up her small back and laughed with gurgling triumph. Sitting on the banks in this way, Silas began to look for the once familiar herbs again; and as the leaves, with their unchanged outline and markings, lay on his palm, there was a sense of

50  crowding remembrances from which he turned away timidly, taking refuge in Eppie’s little world, that lay lightly on his enfeebled spirit.

As the child’s mind was growing into knowledge, his mind was growing into memory: as her life

55  unfolded, his soul, long stupefied in a cold narrow prison, was unfolding too, and trembling gradually into full consciousness.

It was an influence which must gather force with every new year: the tones that stirred Silas’ heart

60  grew articulate, and called for more distinct answers; shapes and sounds grew clearer for Eppie’s eyes and ears, and there was more that “Dad-dad” was imperatively required to notice and account for.

Also, by the time Eppie was three years old, she

65 developed a fine capacity for mischief, and for devising ingenious ways of being troublesome, which found much exercise, not only for Silas’ patience, but for his watchfulness and penetration. Sorely was poor Silas puzzled on such occasions by the incompatible

70 demands of love.

Unlike the gold which needed nothing, and must be worshipped in close-locked solitude—which was hidden away from the daylight, was deaf to the song

Line  of birds, and started to no human tones—Eppie was a

5 creature of endless claims and ever-growing desires, seeking and loving sunshine, and living sounds, and living movements; making trial of everything, with trust in new joy, and stirring the human kindness in all eyes that looked on her. The gold had kept his

10  thoughts in an ever-repeated circle, leading to nothing beyond itself; but Eppie was an object compacted of changes and hopes that forced his thoughts onward, and carried them far away from their old eager pacing towards the same blank

15  limit—carried them away to the new things that would come with the coming years, when Eppie would have learned to understand how her father Silas cared for her; and made him look for images of that time in the ties and charities that bound together

20  the families of his neighbors. The gold had asked that

he should sit weaving longer and longer, deafened and blinded more and more to all things except the monotony of his loom and the repetition of his web; but Eppie called him away from his weaving, and

25  made him think all its pauses a holiday, reawakening his senses with her fresh life, even to the old

winter-flies that came crawling forth in the early spring sunshine, and warming him into joy because she had joy.

30            And when the sunshine grew strong and lasting, so that the buttercups were thick in the meadows, Silas might be seen in the sunny mid-day, or in the late afternoon when the shadows were lengthening under the hedgerows, strolling out with uncovered

35  head to carry Eppie beyond the Stone-pits to where the flowers grew, till they reached some favorite bank where he could sit down, while Eppie toddled to pluck the flowers, and make remarks to the winged things that murmured happily above the bright

40 petals, calling “Dad-dad’s” attention continually by bringing him the flowers. Then she would turn her ear to some sudden bird-note, and Silas learned to please her by making signs of hushed stillness, that they might listen for the note to come again: so that

45  when it came, she set up her small back and laughed with gurgling triumph. Sitting on the banks in this way, Silas began to look for the once familiar herbs again; and as the leaves, with their unchanged outline and markings, lay on his palm, there was a sense of

50  crowding remembrances from which he turned away timidly, taking refuge in Eppie’s little world, that lay lightly on his enfeebled spirit.

As the child’s mind was growing into knowledge, his mind was growing into memory: as her life

55  unfolded, his soul, long stupefied in a cold narrow prison, was unfolding too, and trembling gradually into full consciousness.

It was an influence which must gather force with every new year: the tones that stirred Silas’ heart

60  grew articulate, and called for more distinct answers; shapes and sounds grew clearer for Eppie’s eyes and ears, and there was more that “Dad-dad” was imperatively required to notice and account for.

Also, by the time Eppie was three years old, she

65 developed a fine capacity for mischief, and for devising ingenious ways of being troublesome, which found much exercise, not only for Silas’ patience, but for his watchfulness and penetration. Sorely was poor Silas puzzled on such occasions by the incompatible

70 demands of love.

Unlike the gold which needed nothing, and must be worshipped in close-locked solitude—which was hidden away from the daylight, was deaf to the song

Line  of birds, and started to no human tones—Eppie was a

5 creature of endless claims and ever-growing desires, seeking and loving sunshine, and living sounds, and living movements; making trial of everything, with trust in new joy, and stirring the human kindness in all eyes that looked on her. The gold had kept his

10  thoughts in an ever-repeated circle, leading to nothing beyond itself; but Eppie was an object compacted of changes and hopes that forced his thoughts onward, and carried them far away from their old eager pacing towards the same blank

15  limit—carried them away to the new things that would come with the coming years, when Eppie would have learned to understand how her father Silas cared for her; and made him look for images of that time in the ties and charities that bound together

20  the families of his neighbors. The gold had asked that

he should sit weaving longer and longer, deafened and blinded more and more to all things except the monotony of his loom and the repetition of his web; but Eppie called him away from his weaving, and

25  made him think all its pauses a holiday, reawakening his senses with her fresh life, even to the old

winter-flies that came crawling forth in the early spring sunshine, and warming him into joy because she had joy.

30            And when the sunshine grew strong and lasting, so that the buttercups were thick in the meadows, Silas might be seen in the sunny mid-day, or in the late afternoon when the shadows were lengthening under the hedgerows, strolling out with uncovered

35  head to carry Eppie beyond the Stone-pits to where the flowers grew, till they reached some favorite bank where he could sit down, while Eppie toddled to pluck the flowers, and make remarks to the winged things that murmured happily above the bright

40 petals, calling “Dad-dad’s” attention continually by bringing him the flowers. Then she would turn her ear to some sudden bird-note, and Silas learned to please her by making signs of hushed stillness, that they might listen for the note to come again: so that

45  when it came, she set up her small back and laughed with gurgling triumph. Sitting on the banks in this way, Silas began to look for the once familiar herbs again; and as the leaves, with their unchanged outline and markings, lay on his palm, there was a sense of

50  crowding remembrances from which he turned away timidly, taking refuge in Eppie’s little world, that lay lightly on his enfeebled spirit.

As the child’s mind was growing into knowledge, his mind was growing into memory: as her life

55  unfolded, his soul, long stupefied in a cold narrow prison, was unfolding too, and trembling gradually into full consciousness.

It was an influence which must gather force with every new year: the tones that stirred Silas’ heart

60  grew articulate, and called for more distinct answers; shapes and sounds grew clearer for Eppie’s eyes and ears, and there was more that “Dad-dad” was imperatively required to notice and account for.

Also, by the time Eppie was three years old, she

65 developed a fine capacity for mischief, and for devising ingenious ways of being troublesome, which found much exercise, not only for Silas’ patience, but for his watchfulness and penetration. Sorely was poor Silas puzzled on such occasions by the incompatible

70 demands of love.

Unlike the gold which needed nothing, and must be worshipped in close-locked solitude—which was hidden away from the daylight, was deaf to the song

Line  of birds, and started to no human tones—Eppie was a

5 creature of endless claims and ever-growing desires, seeking and loving sunshine, and living sounds, and living movements; making trial of everything, with trust in new joy, and stirring the human kindness in all eyes that looked on her. The gold had kept his

10  thoughts in an ever-repeated circle, leading to nothing beyond itself; but Eppie was an object compacted of changes and hopes that forced his thoughts onward, and carried them far away from their old eager pacing towards the same blank

15  limit—carried them away to the new things that would come with the coming years, when Eppie would have learned to understand how her father Silas cared for her; and made him look for images of that time in the ties and charities that bound together

20  the families of his neighbors. The gold had asked that

he should sit weaving longer and longer, deafened and blinded more and more to all things except the monotony of his loom and the repetition of his web; but Eppie called him away from his weaving, and

25  made him think all its pauses a holiday, reawakening his senses with her fresh life, even to the old

winter-flies that came crawling forth in the early spring sunshine, and warming him into joy because she had joy.

30            And when the sunshine grew strong and lasting, so that the buttercups were thick in the meadows, Silas might be seen in the sunny mid-day, or in the late afternoon when the shadows were lengthening under the hedgerows, strolling out with uncovered

35  head to carry Eppie beyond the Stone-pits to where the flowers grew, till they reached some favorite bank where he could sit down, while Eppie toddled to pluck the flowers, and make remarks to the winged things that murmured happily above the bright

40 petals, calling “Dad-dad’s” attention continually by bringing him the flowers. Then she would turn her ear to some sudden bird-note, and Silas learned to please her by making signs of hushed stillness, that they might listen for the note to come again: so that

45  when it came, she set up her small back and laughed with gurgling triumph. Sitting on the banks in this way, Silas began to look for the once familiar herbs again; and as the leaves, with their unchanged outline and markings, lay on his palm, there was a sense of

50  crowding remembrances from which he turned away timidly, taking refuge in Eppie’s little world, that lay lightly on his enfeebled spirit.

As the child’s mind was growing into knowledge, his mind was growing into memory: as her life

55  unfolded, his soul, long stupefied in a cold narrow prison, was unfolding too, and trembling gradually into full consciousness.

It was an influence which must gather force with every new year: the tones that stirred Silas’ heart

60  grew articulate, and called for more distinct answers; shapes and sounds grew clearer for Eppie’s eyes and ears, and there was more that “Dad-dad” was imperatively required to notice and account for.

Also, by the time Eppie was three years old, she

65 developed a fine capacity for mischief, and for devising ingenious ways of being troublesome, which found much exercise, not only for Silas’ patience, but for his watchfulness and penetration. Sorely was poor Silas puzzled on such occasions by the incompatible

70 demands of love.

Unlike the gold which needed nothing, and must be worshipped in close-locked solitude—which was hidden away from the daylight, was deaf to the song

Line  of birds, and started to no human tones—Eppie was a

5 creature of endless claims and ever-growing desires, seeking and loving sunshine, and living sounds, and living movements; making trial of everything, with trust in new joy, and stirring the human kindness in all eyes that looked on her. The gold had kept his

10  thoughts in an ever-repeated circle, leading to nothing beyond itself; but Eppie was an object compacted of changes and hopes that forced his thoughts onward, and carried them far away from their old eager pacing towards the same blank

15  limit—carried them away to the new things that would come with the coming years, when Eppie would have learned to understand how her father Silas cared for her; and made him look for images of that time in the ties and charities that bound together

20  the families of his neighbors. The gold had asked that

he should sit weaving longer and longer, deafened and blinded more and more to all things except the monotony of his loom and the repetition of his web; but Eppie called him away from his weaving, and

25  made him think all its pauses a holiday, reawakening his senses with her fresh life, even to the old

winter-flies that came crawling forth in the early spring sunshine, and warming him into joy because she had joy.

30            And when the sunshine grew strong and lasting, so that the buttercups were thick in the meadows, Silas might be seen in the sunny mid-day, or in the late afternoon when the shadows were lengthening under the hedgerows, strolling out with uncovered

35  head to carry Eppie beyond the Stone-pits to where the flowers grew, till they reached some favorite bank where he could sit down, while Eppie toddled to pluck the flowers, and make remarks to the winged things that murmured happily above the bright

40 petals, calling “Dad-dad’s” attention continually by bringing him the flowers. Then she would turn her ear to some sudden bird-note, and Silas learned to please her by making signs of hushed stillness, that they might listen for the note to come again: so that

45  when it came, she set up her small back and laughed with gurgling triumph. Sitting on the banks in this way, Silas began to look for the once familiar herbs again; and as the leaves, with their unchanged outline and markings, lay on his palm, there was a sense of

50  crowding remembrances from which he turned away timidly, taking refuge in Eppie’s little world, that lay lightly on his enfeebled spirit.

As the child’s mind was growing into knowledge, his mind was growing into memory: as her life

55  unfolded, his soul, long stupefied in a cold narrow prison, was unfolding too, and trembling gradually into full consciousness.

It was an influence which must gather force with every new year: the tones that stirred Silas’ heart

60  grew articulate, and called for more distinct answers; shapes and sounds grew clearer for Eppie’s eyes and ears, and there was more that “Dad-dad” was imperatively required to notice and account for.

Also, by the time Eppie was three years old, she

65 developed a fine capacity for mischief, and for devising ingenious ways of being troublesome, which found much exercise, not only for Silas’ patience, but for his watchfulness and penetration. Sorely was poor Silas puzzled on such occasions by the incompatible

70 demands of love.

Unlike the gold which needed nothing, and must be worshipped in close-locked solitude—which was hidden away from the daylight, was deaf to the song

Line  of birds, and started to no human tones—Eppie was a

5 creature of endless claims and ever-growing desires, seeking and loving sunshine, and living sounds, and living movements; making trial of everything, with trust in new joy, and stirring the human kindness in all eyes that looked on her. The gold had kept his

10  thoughts in an ever-repeated circle, leading to nothing beyond itself; but Eppie was an object compacted of changes and hopes that forced his thoughts onward, and carried them far away from their old eager pacing towards the same blank

15  limit—carried them away to the new things that would come with the coming years, when Eppie would have learned to understand how her father Silas cared for her; and made him look for images of that time in the ties and charities that bound together

20  the families of his neighbors. The gold had asked that

he should sit weaving longer and longer, deafened and blinded more and more to all things except the monotony of his loom and the repetition of his web; but Eppie called him away from his weaving, and

25  made him think all its pauses a holiday, reawakening his senses with her fresh life, even to the old

winter-flies that came crawling forth in the early spring sunshine, and warming him into joy because she had joy.

30            And when the sunshine grew strong and lasting, so that the buttercups were thick in the meadows, Silas might be seen in the sunny mid-day, or in the late afternoon when the shadows were lengthening under the hedgerows, strolling out with uncovered

35  head to carry Eppie beyond the Stone-pits to where the flowers grew, till they reached some favorite bank where he could sit down, while Eppie toddled to pluck the flowers, and make remarks to the winged things that murmured happily above the bright

40 petals, calling “Dad-dad’s” attention continually by bringing him the flowers. Then she would turn her ear to some sudden bird-note, and Silas learned to please her by making signs of hushed stillness, that they might listen for the note to come again: so that

45  when it came, she set up her small back and laughed with gurgling triumph. Sitting on the banks in this way, Silas began to look for the once familiar herbs again; and as the leaves, with their unchanged outline and markings, lay on his palm, there was a sense of

50  crowding remembrances from which he turned away timidly, taking refuge in Eppie’s little world, that lay lightly on his enfeebled spirit.

As the child’s mind was growing into knowledge, his mind was growing into memory: as her life

55  unfolded, his soul, long stupefied in a cold narrow prison, was unfolding too, and trembling gradually into full consciousness.

It was an influence which must gather force with every new year: the tones that stirred Silas’ heart

60  grew articulate, and called for more distinct answers; shapes and sounds grew clearer for Eppie’s eyes and ears, and there was more that “Dad-dad” was imperatively required to notice and account for.

Also, by the time Eppie was three years old, she

65 developed a fine capacity for mischief, and for devising ingenious ways of being troublesome, which found much exercise, not only for Silas’ patience, but for his watchfulness and penetration. Sorely was poor Silas puzzled on such occasions by the incompatible

70 demands of love.

Unlike the gold which needed nothing, and must be worshipped in close-locked solitude—which was hidden away from the daylight, was deaf to the song

Line  of birds, and started to no human tones—Eppie was a

5 creature of endless claims and ever-growing desires, seeking and loving sunshine, and living sounds, and living movements; making trial of everything, with trust in new joy, and stirring the human kindness in all eyes that looked on her. The gold had kept his

10  thoughts in an ever-repeated circle, leading to nothing beyond itself; but Eppie was an object compacted of changes and hopes that forced his thoughts onward, and carried them far away from their old eager pacing towards the same blank

15  limit—carried them away to the new things that would come with the coming years, when Eppie would have learned to understand how her father Silas cared for her; and made him look for images of that time in the ties and charities that bound together

20  the families of his neighbors. The gold had asked that

he should sit weaving longer and longer, deafened and blinded more and more to all things except the monotony of his loom and the repetition of his web; but Eppie called him away from his weaving, and

25  made him think all its pauses a holiday, reawakening his senses with her fresh life, even to the old

winter-flies that came crawling forth in the early spring sunshine, and warming him into joy because she had joy.

30            And when the sunshine grew strong and lasting, so that the buttercups were thick in the meadows, Silas might be seen in the sunny mid-day, or in the late afternoon when the shadows were lengthening under the hedgerows, strolling out with uncovered

35  head to carry Eppie beyond the Stone-pits to where the flowers grew, till they reached some favorite bank where he could sit down, while Eppie toddled to pluck the flowers, and make remarks to the winged things that murmured happily above the bright

40 petals, calling “Dad-dad’s” attention continually by bringing him the flowers. Then she would turn her ear to some sudden bird-note, and Silas learned to please her by making signs of hushed stillness, that they might listen for the note to come again: so that

45  when it came, she set up her small back and laughed with gurgling triumph. Sitting on the banks in this way, Silas began to look for the once familiar herbs again; and as the leaves, with their unchanged outline and markings, lay on his palm, there was a sense of

50  crowding remembrances from which he turned away timidly, taking refuge in Eppie’s little world, that lay lightly on his enfeebled spirit.

As the child’s mind was growing into knowledge, his mind was growing into memory: as her life

55  unfolded, his soul, long stupefied in a cold narrow prison, was unfolding too, and trembling gradually into full consciousness.

It was an influence which must gather force with every new year: the tones that stirred Silas’ heart

60  grew articulate, and called for more distinct answers; shapes and sounds grew clearer for Eppie’s eyes and ears, and there was more that “Dad-dad” was imperatively required to notice and account for.

Also, by the time Eppie was three years old, she

65 developed a fine capacity for mischief, and for devising ingenious ways of being troublesome, which found much exercise, not only for Silas’ patience, but for his watchfulness and penetration. Sorely was poor Silas puzzled on such occasions by the incompatible

70 demands of love.

Unlike the gold which needed nothing, and must be worshipped in close-locked solitude—which was hidden away from the daylight, was deaf to the song

Line  of birds, and started to no human tones—Eppie was a

5 creature of endless claims and ever-growing desires, seeking and loving sunshine, and living sounds, and living movements; making trial of everything, with trust in new joy, and stirring the human kindness in all eyes that looked on her. The gold had kept his

10  thoughts in an ever-repeated circle, leading to nothing beyond itself; but Eppie was an object compacted of changes and hopes that forced his thoughts onward, and carried them far away from their old eager pacing towards the same blank

15  limit—carried them away to the new things that would come with the coming years, when Eppie would have learned to understand how her father Silas cared for her; and made him look for images of that time in the ties and charities that bound together

20  the families of his neighbors. The gold had asked that

he should sit weaving longer and longer, deafened and blinded more and more to all things except the monotony of his loom and the repetition of his web; but Eppie called him away from his weaving, and

25  made him think all its pauses a holiday, reawakening his senses with her fresh life, even to the old

winter-flies that came crawling forth in the early spring sunshine, and warming him into joy because she had joy.

30            And when the sunshine grew strong and lasting, so that the buttercups were thick in the meadows, Silas might be seen in the sunny mid-day, or in the late afternoon when the shadows were lengthening under the hedgerows, strolling out with uncovered

35  head to carry Eppie beyond the Stone-pits to where the flowers grew, till they reached some favorite bank where he could sit down, while Eppie toddled to pluck the flowers, and make remarks to the winged things that murmured happily above the bright

40 petals, calling “Dad-dad’s” attention continually by bringing him the flowers. Then she would turn her ear to some sudden bird-note, and Silas learned to please her by making signs of hushed stillness, that they might listen for the note to come again: so that

45  when it came, she set up her small back and laughed with gurgling triumph. Sitting on the banks in this way, Silas began to look for the once familiar herbs again; and as the leaves, with their unchanged outline and markings, lay on his palm, there was a sense of

50  crowding remembrances from which he turned away timidly, taking refuge in Eppie’s little world, that lay lightly on his enfeebled spirit.

As the child’s mind was growing into knowledge, his mind was growing into memory: as her life

55  unfolded, his soul, long stupefied in a cold narrow prison, was unfolding too, and trembling gradually into full consciousness.

It was an influence which must gather force with every new year: the tones that stirred Silas’ heart

60  grew articulate, and called for more distinct answers; shapes and sounds grew clearer for Eppie’s eyes and ears, and there was more that “Dad-dad” was imperatively required to notice and account for.

Also, by the time Eppie was three years old, she

65 developed a fine capacity for mischief, and for devising ingenious ways of being troublesome, which found much exercise, not only for Silas’ patience, but for his watchfulness and penetration. Sorely was poor Silas puzzled on such occasions by the incompatible

70 demands of love.

Anyone watching the autumn sky knows that migrating birds fly in a V formation, but scientists have long debated why. A new study of ibises finds

Line  that these big-winged birds carefully position their

5  wingtips and sync their flapping, presumably to catch the preceding bird’s updraft—and save energy  during flight.

There are two reasons birds might fly in a

V formation: It may make flight easier, or they’re

10 simply following the leader. Squadrons of planes can

save fuel by flying in a V formation, and many scientists suspect that migrating birds do the same. Models that treated flapping birds like fixed-wing airplanes estimate that they save energy by drafting

15  off each other, but currents created by airplanes are far more stable than the oscillating eddies coming off of a bird. “Air gets pretty unpredictable behind a flapping wing,” says James Usherwood, a locomotor biomechanist at the Royal Veterinary College at the

20  University of London in Hatfield, where the research took place.

The study, published in Nature, took advantage of an existing project to reintroduce endangered northern bald ibises (Geronticus eremita) to Europe.

25  Scientists used a microlight plane to show

hand-raised birds their ancestral migration route from Austria to Italy. A flock of 14 juveniles carried data loggers specially built by Usherwood and his lab. The device’s GPS determined each bird’s flight

30  position to within 30 cm, and an accelerometer showed the timing of the wing flaps.

Just as aerodynamic estimates would predict, the birds positioned themselves to fly just behind and to the side of the bird in front, timing their wing beats

35  to catch the uplifting eddies. When a bird flew directly behind another, the timing of the flapping reversed so that it could minimize the effects of the downdraft coming off the back of the bird’s body. “We didn’t think this was possible,” Usherwood

40  says, considering that the feat requires careful flight and incredible awareness of one’s neighbors.

“Perhaps these big V formation birds can be thought of quite like an airplane with wings that go up and down.”

45            The findings likely apply to other long-winged birds, such as pelicans, storks, and geese, Usherwood says. Smaller birds create more complex wakes that would make drafting too difficult. The researchers did not attempt to calculate the bird’s energy savings

50 because the necessary physiological measurements would be too invasive for an endangered species. Previous studies estimate that birds can use

20 percent to 30 percent less energy while flying in a V.

55            “From a behavioral perspective it’s really a breakthrough,” says David Lentink, a mechanical engineer at Stanford University in Palo Alto, California, who was not involved in the work. “Showing that birds care about syncing their wing

60  beats is definitely an important insight that we didn’t have before.”

Scientists do not know how the birds find

that aerodynamic sweet spot, but they suspect that the animals align themselves either by sight or

65  by sensing air currents through their feathers.

Alternatively, they may move around until they find the location with the least resistance. In future studies, the researchers will switch to more common birds, such as pigeons or geese. They plan to

70  investigate how the animals decide who sets the course and the pace, and whether a mistake made by the leader can ripple through the rest of the flock to cause traffic jams.

“It’s a pretty impressive piece of work as it is, but

75 it does suggest that there’s a lot more to learn,” says Ty Hedrick, a biologist at the University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, who studies flight

aerodynamics in birds and insects. However they do it, he says, “birds are awfully good hang-glider

80 pilots.”

Anyone watching the autumn sky knows that migrating birds fly in a V formation, but scientists have long debated why. A new study of ibises finds

Line  that these big-winged birds carefully position their

5  wingtips and sync their flapping, presumably to catch the preceding bird’s updraft—and save energy  during flight.

There are two reasons birds might fly in a

V formation: It may make flight easier, or they’re

10 simply following the leader. Squadrons of planes can

save fuel by flying in a V formation, and many scientists suspect that migrating birds do the same. Models that treated flapping birds like fixed-wing airplanes estimate that they save energy by drafting

15  off each other, but currents created by airplanes are far more stable than the oscillating eddies coming off of a bird. “Air gets pretty unpredictable behind a flapping wing,” says James Usherwood, a locomotor biomechanist at the Royal Veterinary College at the

20  University of London in Hatfield, where the research took place.

The study, published in Nature, took advantage of an existing project to reintroduce endangered northern bald ibises (Geronticus eremita) to Europe.

25  Scientists used a microlight plane to show

hand-raised birds their ancestral migration route from Austria to Italy. A flock of 14 juveniles carried data loggers specially built by Usherwood and his lab. The device’s GPS determined each bird’s flight

30  position to within 30 cm, and an accelerometer showed the timing of the wing flaps.

Just as aerodynamic estimates would predict, the birds positioned themselves to fly just behind and to the side of the bird in front, timing their wing beats

35  to catch the uplifting eddies. When a bird flew directly behind another, the timing of the flapping reversed so that it could minimize the effects of the downdraft coming off the back of the bird’s body. “We didn’t think this was possible,” Usherwood

40  says, considering that the feat requires careful flight and incredible awareness of one’s neighbors.

“Perhaps these big V formation birds can be thought of quite like an airplane with wings that go up and down.”

45            The findings likely apply to other long-winged birds, such as pelicans, storks, and geese, Usherwood says. Smaller birds create more complex wakes that would make drafting too difficult. The researchers did not attempt to calculate the bird’s energy savings

50 because the necessary physiological measurements would be too invasive for an endangered species. Previous studies estimate that birds can use

20 percent to 30 percent less energy while flying in a V.

55            “From a behavioral perspective it’s really a breakthrough,” says David Lentink, a mechanical engineer at Stanford University in Palo Alto, California, who was not involved in the work. “Showing that birds care about syncing their wing

60  beats is definitely an important insight that we didn’t have before.”

Scientists do not know how the birds find

that aerodynamic sweet spot, but they suspect that the animals align themselves either by sight or

65  by sensing air currents through their feathers.

Alternatively, they may move around until they find the location with the least resistance. In future studies, the researchers will switch to more common birds, such as pigeons or geese. They plan to

70  investigate how the animals decide who sets the course and the pace, and whether a mistake made by the leader can ripple through the rest of the flock to cause traffic jams.

“It’s a pretty impressive piece of work as it is, but

75 it does suggest that there’s a lot more to learn,” says Ty Hedrick, a biologist at the University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, who studies flight

aerodynamics in birds and insects. However they do it, he says, “birds are awfully good hang-glider

80 pilots.”

Anyone watching the autumn sky knows that migrating birds fly in a V formation, but scientists have long debated why. A new study of ibises finds

Line  that these big-winged birds carefully position their

5  wingtips and sync their flapping, presumably to catch the preceding bird’s updraft—and save energy  during flight.

There are two reasons birds might fly in a

V formation: It may make flight easier, or they’re

10 simply following the leader. Squadrons of planes can

save fuel by flying in a V formation, and many scientists suspect that migrating birds do the same. Models that treated flapping birds like fixed-wing airplanes estimate that they save energy by drafting

15  off each other, but currents created by airplanes are far more stable than the oscillating eddies coming off of a bird. “Air gets pretty unpredictable behind a flapping wing,” says James Usherwood, a locomotor biomechanist at the Royal Veterinary College at the

20  University of London in Hatfield, where the research took place.

The study, published in Nature, took advantage of an existing project to reintroduce endangered northern bald ibises (Geronticus eremita) to Europe.

25  Scientists used a microlight plane to show

hand-raised birds their ancestral migration route from Austria to Italy. A flock of 14 juveniles carried data loggers specially built by Usherwood and his lab. The device’s GPS determined each bird’s flight

30  position to within 30 cm, and an accelerometer showed the timing of the wing flaps.

Just as aerodynamic estimates would predict, the birds positioned themselves to fly just behind and to the side of the bird in front, timing their wing beats

35  to catch the uplifting eddies. When a bird flew directly behind another, the timing of the flapping reversed so that it could minimize the effects of the downdraft coming off the back of the bird’s body. “We didn’t think this was possible,” Usherwood

40  says, considering that the feat requires careful flight and incredible awareness of one’s neighbors.

“Perhaps these big V formation birds can be thought of quite like an airplane with wings that go up and down.”

45            The findings likely apply to other long-winged birds, such as pelicans, storks, and geese, Usherwood says. Smaller birds create more complex wakes that would make drafting too difficult. The researchers did not attempt to calculate the bird’s energy savings

50 because the necessary physiological measurements would be too invasive for an endangered species. Previous studies estimate that birds can use

20 percent to 30 percent less energy while flying in a V.

55            “From a behavioral perspective it’s really a breakthrough,” says David Lentink, a mechanical engineer at Stanford University in Palo Alto, California, who was not involved in the work. “Showing that birds care about syncing their wing

60  beats is definitely an important insight that we didn’t have before.”

Scientists do not know how the birds find

that aerodynamic sweet spot, but they suspect that the animals align themselves either by sight or

65  by sensing air currents through their feathers.

Alternatively, they may move around until they find the location with the least resistance. In future studies, the researchers will switch to more common birds, such as pigeons or geese. They plan to

70  investigate how the animals decide who sets the course and the pace, and whether a mistake made by the leader can ripple through the rest of the flock to cause traffic jams.

“It’s a pretty impressive piece of work as it is, but

75 it does suggest that there’s a lot more to learn,” says Ty Hedrick, a biologist at the University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, who studies flight

aerodynamics in birds and insects. However they do it, he says, “birds are awfully good hang-glider

80 pilots.”

Anyone watching the autumn sky knows that migrating birds fly in a V formation, but scientists have long debated why. A new study of ibises finds

Line  that these big-winged birds carefully position their

5  wingtips and sync their flapping, presumably to catch the preceding bird’s updraft—and save energy  during flight.

There are two reasons birds might fly in a

V formation: It may make flight easier, or they’re

10 simply following the leader. Squadrons of planes can

save fuel by flying in a V formation, and many scientists suspect that migrating birds do the same. Models that treated flapping birds like fixed-wing airplanes estimate that they save energy by drafting

15  off each other, but currents created by airplanes are far more stable than the oscillating eddies coming off of a bird. “Air gets pretty unpredictable behind a flapping wing,” says James Usherwood, a locomotor biomechanist at the Royal Veterinary College at the

20  University of London in Hatfield, where the research took place.

The study, published in Nature, took advantage of an existing project to reintroduce endangered northern bald ibises (Geronticus eremita) to Europe.

25  Scientists used a microlight plane to show

hand-raised birds their ancestral migration route from Austria to Italy. A flock of 14 juveniles carried data loggers specially built by Usherwood and his lab. The device’s GPS determined each bird’s flight

30  position to within 30 cm, and an accelerometer showed the timing of the wing flaps.

Just as aerodynamic estimates would predict, the birds positioned themselves to fly just behind and to the side of the bird in front, timing their wing beats

35  to catch the uplifting eddies. When a bird flew directly behind another, the timing of the flapping reversed so that it could minimize the effects of the downdraft coming off the back of the bird’s body. “We didn’t think this was possible,” Usherwood

40  says, considering that the feat requires careful flight and incredible awareness of one’s neighbors.

“Perhaps these big V formation birds can be thought of quite like an airplane with wings that go up and down.”

45            The findings likely apply to other long-winged birds, such as pelicans, storks, and geese, Usherwood says. Smaller birds create more complex wakes that would make drafting too difficult. The researchers did not attempt to calculate the bird’s energy savings

50 because the necessary physiological measurements would be too invasive for an endangered species. Previous studies estimate that birds can use

20 percent to 30 percent less energy while flying in a V.

55            “From a behavioral perspective it’s really a breakthrough,” says David Lentink, a mechanical engineer at Stanford University in Palo Alto, California, who was not involved in the work. “Showing that birds care about syncing their wing

60  beats is definitely an important insight that we didn’t have before.”

Scientists do not know how the birds find

that aerodynamic sweet spot, but they suspect that the animals align themselves either by sight or

65  by sensing air currents through their feathers.

Alternatively, they may move around until they find the location with the least resistance. In future studies, the researchers will switch to more common birds, such as pigeons or geese. They plan to

70  investigate how the animals decide who sets the course and the pace, and whether a mistake made by the leader can ripple through the rest of the flock to cause traffic jams.

“It’s a pretty impressive piece of work as it is, but

75 it does suggest that there’s a lot more to learn,” says Ty Hedrick, a biologist at the University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, who studies flight

aerodynamics in birds and insects. However they do it, he says, “birds are awfully good hang-glider

80 pilots.”

Anyone watching the autumn sky knows that migrating birds fly in a V formation, but scientists have long debated why. A new study of ibises finds

Line  that these big-winged birds carefully position their

5  wingtips and sync their flapping, presumably to catch the preceding bird’s updraft—and save energy  during flight.

There are two reasons birds might fly in a

V formation: It may make flight easier, or they’re

10 simply following the leader. Squadrons of planes can

save fuel by flying in a V formation, and many scientists suspect that migrating birds do the same. Models that treated flapping birds like fixed-wing airplanes estimate that they save energy by drafting

15  off each other, but currents created by airplanes are far more stable than the oscillating eddies coming off of a bird. “Air gets pretty unpredictable behind a flapping wing,” says James Usherwood, a locomotor biomechanist at the Royal Veterinary College at the

20  University of London in Hatfield, where the research took place.

The study, published in Nature, took advantage of an existing project to reintroduce endangered northern bald ibises (Geronticus eremita) to Europe.

25  Scientists used a microlight plane to show

hand-raised birds their ancestral migration route from Austria to Italy. A flock of 14 juveniles carried data loggers specially built by Usherwood and his lab. The device’s GPS determined each bird’s flight

30  position to within 30 cm, and an accelerometer showed the timing of the wing flaps.

Just as aerodynamic estimates would predict, the birds positioned themselves to fly just behind and to the side of the bird in front, timing their wing beats

35  to catch the uplifting eddies. When a bird flew directly behind another, the timing of the flapping reversed so that it could minimize the effects of the downdraft coming off the back of the bird’s body. “We didn’t think this was possible,” Usherwood

40  says, considering that the feat requires careful flight and incredible awareness of one’s neighbors.

“Perhaps these big V formation birds can be thought of quite like an airplane with wings that go up and down.”

45            The findings likely apply to other long-winged birds, such as pelicans, storks, and geese, Usherwood says. Smaller birds create more complex wakes that would make drafting too difficult. The researchers did not attempt to calculate the bird’s energy savings

50 because the necessary physiological measurements would be too invasive for an endangered species. Previous studies estimate that birds can use

20 percent to 30 percent less energy while flying in a V.

55            “From a behavioral perspective it’s really a breakthrough,” says David Lentink, a mechanical engineer at Stanford University in Palo Alto, California, who was not involved in the work. “Showing that birds care about syncing their wing

60  beats is definitely an important insight that we didn’t have before.”

Scientists do not know how the birds find

that aerodynamic sweet spot, but they suspect that the animals align themselves either by sight or

65  by sensing air currents through their feathers.

Alternatively, they may move around until they find the location with the least resistance. In future studies, the researchers will switch to more common birds, such as pigeons or geese. They plan to

70  investigate how the animals decide who sets the course and the pace, and whether a mistake made by the leader can ripple through the rest of the flock to cause traffic jams.

“It’s a pretty impressive piece of work as it is, but

75 it does suggest that there’s a lot more to learn,” says Ty Hedrick, a biologist at the University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, who studies flight

aerodynamics in birds and insects. However they do it, he says, “birds are awfully good hang-glider

80 pilots.”

Anyone watching the autumn sky knows that migrating birds fly in a V formation, but scientists have long debated why. A new study of ibises finds

Line  that these big-winged birds carefully position their

5  wingtips and sync their flapping, presumably to catch the preceding bird’s updraft—and save energy  during flight.

There are two reasons birds might fly in a

V formation: It may make flight easier, or they’re

10 simply following the leader. Squadrons of planes can

save fuel by flying in a V formation, and many scientists suspect that migrating birds do the same. Models that treated flapping birds like fixed-wing airplanes estimate that they save energy by drafting

15  off each other, but currents created by airplanes are far more stable than the oscillating eddies coming off of a bird. “Air gets pretty unpredictable behind a flapping wing,” says James Usherwood, a locomotor biomechanist at the Royal Veterinary College at the

20  University of London in Hatfield, where the research took place.

The study, published in Nature, took advantage of an existing project to reintroduce endangered northern bald ibises (Geronticus eremita) to Europe.

25  Scientists used a microlight plane to show

hand-raised birds their ancestral migration route from Austria to Italy. A flock of 14 juveniles carried data loggers specially built by Usherwood and his lab. The device’s GPS determined each bird’s flight

30  position to within 30 cm, and an accelerometer showed the timing of the wing flaps.

Just as aerodynamic estimates would predict, the birds positioned themselves to fly just behind and to the side of the bird in front, timing their wing beats

35  to catch the uplifting eddies. When a bird flew directly behind another, the timing of the flapping reversed so that it could minimize the effects of the downdraft coming off the back of the bird’s body. “We didn’t think this was possible,” Usherwood

40  says, considering that the feat requires careful flight and incredible awareness of one’s neighbors.

“Perhaps these big V formation birds can be thought of quite like an airplane with wings that go up and down.”

45            The findings likely apply to other long-winged birds, such as pelicans, storks, and geese, Usherwood says. Smaller birds create more complex wakes that would make drafting too difficult. The researchers did not attempt to calculate the bird’s energy savings

50 because the necessary physiological measurements would be too invasive for an endangered species. Previous studies estimate that birds can use

20 percent to 30 percent less energy while flying in a V.

55            “From a behavioral perspective it’s really a breakthrough,” says David Lentink, a mechanical engineer at Stanford University in Palo Alto, California, who was not involved in the work. “Showing that birds care about syncing their wing

60  beats is definitely an important insight that we didn’t have before.”

Scientists do not know how the birds find

that aerodynamic sweet spot, but they suspect that the animals align themselves either by sight or

65  by sensing air currents through their feathers.

Alternatively, they may move around until they find the location with the least resistance. In future studies, the researchers will switch to more common birds, such as pigeons or geese. They plan to

70  investigate how the animals decide who sets the course and the pace, and whether a mistake made by the leader can ripple through the rest of the flock to cause traffic jams.

“It’s a pretty impressive piece of work as it is, but

75 it does suggest that there’s a lot more to learn,” says Ty Hedrick, a biologist at the University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, who studies flight

aerodynamics in birds and insects. However they do it, he says, “birds are awfully good hang-glider

80 pilots.”

Anyone watching the autumn sky knows that migrating birds fly in a V formation, but scientists have long debated why. A new study of ibises finds

Line  that these big-winged birds carefully position their

5  wingtips and sync their flapping, presumably to catch the preceding bird’s updraft—and save energy  during flight.

There are two reasons birds might fly in a

V formation: It may make flight easier, or they’re

10 simply following the leader. Squadrons of planes can

save fuel by flying in a V formation, and many scientists suspect that migrating birds do the same. Models that treated flapping birds like fixed-wing airplanes estimate that they save energy by drafting

15  off each other, but currents created by airplanes are far more stable than the oscillating eddies coming off of a bird. “Air gets pretty unpredictable behind a flapping wing,” says James Usherwood, a locomotor biomechanist at the Royal Veterinary College at the

20  University of London in Hatfield, where the research took place.

The study, published in Nature, took advantage of an existing project to reintroduce endangered northern bald ibises (Geronticus eremita) to Europe.

25  Scientists used a microlight plane to show

hand-raised birds their ancestral migration route from Austria to Italy. A flock of 14 juveniles carried data loggers specially built by Usherwood and his lab. The device’s GPS determined each bird’s flight

30  position to within 30 cm, and an accelerometer showed the timing of the wing flaps.

Just as aerodynamic estimates would predict, the birds positioned themselves to fly just behind and to the side of the bird in front, timing their wing beats

35  to catch the uplifting eddies. When a bird flew directly behind another, the timing of the flapping reversed so that it could minimize the effects of the downdraft coming off the back of the bird’s body. “We didn’t think this was possible,” Usherwood

40  says, considering that the feat requires careful flight and incredible awareness of one’s neighbors.

“Perhaps these big V formation birds can be thought of quite like an airplane with wings that go up and down.”

45            The findings likely apply to other long-winged birds, such as pelicans, storks, and geese, Usherwood says. Smaller birds create more complex wakes that would make drafting too difficult. The researchers did not attempt to calculate the bird’s energy savings

50 because the necessary physiological measurements would be too invasive for an endangered species. Previous studies estimate that birds can use

20 percent to 30 percent less energy while flying in a V.

55            “From a behavioral perspective it’s really a breakthrough,” says David Lentink, a mechanical engineer at Stanford University in Palo Alto, California, who was not involved in the work. “Showing that birds care about syncing their wing

60  beats is definitely an important insight that we didn’t have before.”

Scientists do not know how the birds find

that aerodynamic sweet spot, but they suspect that the animals align themselves either by sight or

65  by sensing air currents through their feathers.

Alternatively, they may move around until they find the location with the least resistance. In future studies, the researchers will switch to more common birds, such as pigeons or geese. They plan to

70  investigate how the animals decide who sets the course and the pace, and whether a mistake made by the leader can ripple through the rest of the flock to cause traffic jams.

“It’s a pretty impressive piece of work as it is, but

75 it does suggest that there’s a lot more to learn,” says Ty Hedrick, a biologist at the University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, who studies flight

aerodynamics in birds and insects. However they do it, he says, “birds are awfully good hang-glider

80 pilots.”

Anyone watching the autumn sky knows that migrating birds fly in a V formation, but scientists have long debated why. A new study of ibises finds

Line  that these big-winged birds carefully position their

5  wingtips and sync their flapping, presumably to catch the preceding bird’s updraft—and save energy  during flight.

There are two reasons birds might fly in a

V formation: It may make flight easier, or they’re

10 simply following the leader. Squadrons of planes can

save fuel by flying in a V formation, and many scientists suspect that migrating birds do the same. Models that treated flapping birds like fixed-wing airplanes estimate that they save energy by drafting

15  off each other, but currents created by airplanes are far more stable than the oscillating eddies coming off of a bird. “Air gets pretty unpredictable behind a flapping wing,” says James Usherwood, a locomotor biomechanist at the Royal Veterinary College at the

20  University of London in Hatfield, where the research took place.

The study, published in Nature, took advantage of an existing project to reintroduce endangered northern bald ibises (Geronticus eremita) to Europe.

25  Scientists used a microlight plane to show

hand-raised birds their ancestral migration route from Austria to Italy. A flock of 14 juveniles carried data loggers specially built by Usherwood and his lab. The device’s GPS determined each bird’s flight

30  position to within 30 cm, and an accelerometer showed the timing of the wing flaps.

Just as aerodynamic estimates would predict, the birds positioned themselves to fly just behind and to the side of the bird in front, timing their wing beats

35  to catch the uplifting eddies. When a bird flew directly behind another, the timing of the flapping reversed so that it could minimize the effects of the downdraft coming off the back of the bird’s body. “We didn’t think this was possible,” Usherwood

40  says, considering that the feat requires careful flight and incredible awareness of one’s neighbors.

“Perhaps these big V formation birds can be thought of quite like an airplane with wings that go up and down.”

45            The findings likely apply to other long-winged birds, such as pelicans, storks, and geese, Usherwood says. Smaller birds create more complex wakes that would make drafting too difficult. The researchers did not attempt to calculate the bird’s energy savings

50 because the necessary physiological measurements would be too invasive for an endangered species. Previous studies estimate that birds can use

20 percent to 30 percent less energy while flying in a V.

55            “From a behavioral perspective it’s really a breakthrough,” says David Lentink, a mechanical engineer at Stanford University in Palo Alto, California, who was not involved in the work. “Showing that birds care about syncing their wing

60  beats is definitely an important insight that we didn’t have before.”

Scientists do not know how the birds find

that aerodynamic sweet spot, but they suspect that the animals align themselves either by sight or

65  by sensing air currents through their feathers.

Alternatively, they may move around until they find the location with the least resistance. In future studies, the researchers will switch to more common birds, such as pigeons or geese. They plan to

70  investigate how the animals decide who sets the course and the pace, and whether a mistake made by the leader can ripple through the rest of the flock to cause traffic jams.

“It’s a pretty impressive piece of work as it is, but