LSAT1

Questions 1–5

A company employee generates a series of five-digit product codes in accordance with the following rules:

The codes use the digits 0, 1, 2, 3, and 4, and no others. Each digit occurs exactly once in any code.

The second digit has a value exactly twice that of the first digit.

The value of the third digit is less than the value of the fifth digit.

Q1.If the last digit of an acceptable product code is 1, it must be true that the

Questions 6–10

Exactly three films—Greed, Harvest, and Limelight—are shown during a film club’s festival held on Thursday, Friday, and Saturday. Each film is shown at least once during the festival but never more than once on a given day. On each day at least one film is shown. Films are shown one at a time. The following conditions apply:

On Thursday Harvest is shown, and no film is shown after it on that day.

On Friday either Greed or Limelight, but not both, is shown, and no film is shown after it on that day.

On Saturday either Greed or Harvest, but not both, is shown, and no film is shown after it on that day.

1. Which one of the following could be a complete and accurate description of the order in which the films are shown at the festival?

Questions 11–17

A cruise line is scheduling seven week-long voyages for the ship Freedom. Each voyage will occur in exactly one of the first seven weeks of the season: weeks 1 through 7. Each voyage will be to exactly one of four destinations: Guadeloupe, Jamaica, Martinique, or Trinidad. Each destination will be scheduled for at least one of the weeks. The following conditions apply to Freedom’s schedule:

Jamaica will not be its destination in week 4. Trinidad will be its destination in week 7.

Freedom will make exactly two voyages to Martinique, and at least one voyage to Guadeloupe will occur in some week between those two voyages.

Guadeloupe will be its destination in the week preceding any voyage it makes to Jamaica.

No destination will be scheduled for consecutive weeks.

1. Which one of the following is an acceptable schedule of destinations for Freedom, in order from week 1 through week 7?

Questions 18–23
There are exactly three recycling centers in Rivertown: Center 1, Center 2, and Center 3. Exactly five kinds of material are recycled at these recycling centers: glass, newsprint, plastic, tin, and wood. Each recycling center recycles at least two but no more than three of these kinds of material. The following conditions must hold:
Any recycling center that recycles wood also recycles newsprint.
Every kind of material that Center 2 recycles is also recycled at Center 1.
Only one of the recycling centers recycles plastic, and that recycling center does not recycle glass.
18. Which one of the following could be an accurate account of all the kinds of material recycled at each recycling center in Rivertown?

31. Proponents of the electric car maintain that when the technical problems associated with its battery design are solved, such cars will be widely used and, because they are emission-free, will result in an abatement of the environmental degradation caused by auto But unless we dam more rivers, the electricity to charge these batteries will come from nuclear or coal-fired power plants. Each of these three power sources produces considerable environmental damage. Thus, the electric car .

Which one of the following most logically completes the argument?

32. Although video game sales have increased steadily over the past 3 years, we can expect a reversal of this trend in the very near Historically, over three quarters of video games sold have been purchased by people from 13 to 16 years of age, and the number of people in this age group is expected to decline steadily over the next 10 years.

Which one of the following, if true, would most seriously weaken the argument?

Which one of the following most logically completes the argument?

33.Double-blind techniques should be used whenever possible in scientific They help prevent the misinterpretations that often arise due to expectations and opinions that scientists already hold, and clearly scientists should be extremely diligent in trying to avoid such misinterpretations.

Which one of the following most accurately expresses the main conclusion of the argument?

34. It is now a common complaint that the electronic media have corroded the intellectual skills required and fostered by the literary But several centuries ago the complaint was that certain intellectual skills, such as the powerful memory and extemporaneous

eloquence that were intrinsic to oral culture, were being destroyed by the spread of literacy. So, what awaits us is probably a mere alteration of the human mind rather than its devolution.

The reference to the complaint of several centuries ago that powerful memory and extemporaneous eloquence were being destroyed plays which one of the following roles in the argument?

35. Suppose I have promised to keep a confidence and someone asks me a question that I cannot answer truthfully without thereby breaking the Obviously, I cannot both keep and break the same promise. Therefore, one cannot be obliged both to answer all questions truthfully and to keep all promises.
Which one of the following arguments is most similar in its reasoning to the argument above?

36. Standard aluminum soft-drink cans do not vary in the amount of aluminum that they Fifty percent of the aluminum contained in a certain group (M) of standard aluminum soft-drink cans was recycled from another group (L) of used, standard aluminum soft- drink cans. Since all the cans in L were recycled into cans in M and since the amount of material other than aluminum in an aluminum can is negligible, it follows that M contains twice as many cans as L.
The conclusion of the argument follows logically if which one of the following is assumed?

37. A cup of raw milk, after being heated in a microwave oven to 50 degrees Celsius, contains half its initial concentration of a particular enzyme, If, however, the milk reaches that temperature through exposure to a conventional heat source of 50 degrees Celsius, it will contain nearly all of its initial concentration of the enzyme. Therefore, what destroys the enzyme is not heat but microwaves, which generate heat.

Which one of the following, if true, most seriously weakens the argument?

38. A new government policy has been developed to avoid many serious cases of This goal will be accomplished by the annual vaccination of high-risk individuals: everyone 65 and older as well as anyone with a chronic disease that might cause them to experience complications from the influenza virus. Each year’s vaccination will protect only against the strain of the influenza virus deemed most likely to be prevalent that year, so every year it will be necessary for all high-risk individuals to receive a vaccine for a different strain of the virus.

Which one of the following is an assumption that

would allow the conclusion above to be properly drawn?

39. Taylor: Researchers at a local university claim that

61 percent of the information transferred during a conversation is communicated through nonverbal signals. But this claim, like all such mathematically precise claims, is suspect, because claims of such exactitude could never be established by science.

Sandra: While precision is unobtainable in many areas of life, it is commonplace in others. Many scientific disciplines obtain extremely precise results, which should not be doubted merely because of their precision.

40. Hospital executive: At a recent conference on nonprofit management, several computer experts maintained that the most significant threat faced by large institutions such as universities and hospitals is unauthorized access to confidential data. In light of this testimony, we should make the protection of our clients’ confidentiality our highest

The hospital executive’s argument is most vulnerable to which one of the following objections?

41. Modern science is built on the process of posing hypotheses and testing them against observations—in essence, attempting to show that the hypotheses are Nothing brings more recognition than overthrowing conventional wisdom. It is accordingly unsurprising that some scientists are skeptical of the widely accepted predictions of global warming. What is instead remarkable is that with hundreds of researchers striving to make breakthroughs in climatology, very

few find evidence that global warming is unlikely.

42. Historian: The Land Party achieved its only national victory in Banestria in It received most of its support that year in rural and semirural areas, where the bulk of Banestria’s population lived at the time. The economic woes of the years surrounding that election hit agricultural and small business interests the hardest, and the Land Party specifically targeted those groups in 1935. I conclude that the success of the Land Party that year was due to the combination of the Land Party’s specifically addressing the concerns of these groups and the depth of the economic problems people in these groups were facing.

Each of the following, if true, strengthens the historian’s argument EXCEPT:

43. Gamba: Muñoz claims that the Southwest Hopeville Neighbors Association overwhelmingly opposes the new water system, citing this as evidence of citywide The association did pass a resolution opposing the new water system, but only 25 of 350 members voted, with 10 in favor of the system. Furthermore, the 15 opposing votes represent far less than 1 percent of Hopeville’s population. One should not assume that so few votes represent the view of the majority of Hopeville’s residents.

Of the following, which one most accurately describes Gamba’s strategy of argumentation?

44. Driver: My friends say I will one day have an accident because I drive my sports car But I have done some research, and apparently minivans and larger sedans have very low accident rates compared to sports cars. So trading my sports car in for a minivan would lower my risk of having an accident.

The reasoning in the driver’s argument is most vulnerable to criticism on the grounds that this argument

45. Editorialist: News media rarely cover local politics thoroughly, and local political business is usually conducted These factors each tend to isolate local politicians from their electorates. This has the effect of reducing the chance that any particular act of resident participation will elicit a positive official response, which in turn discourages resident participation in local politics.

Which one of the following is most strongly supported by the editorialist’s statements?

46. Philosopher: An action is morally right if it would be reasonably expected to increase the aggregate well-being of the people affected by An action is morally wrong if and only if it would be reasonably expected to reduce the aggregate well- being of the people affected by it. Thus, actions that would be reasonably expected to leave unchanged the aggregate well-being of the people affected by them are also right.

The philosopher’s conclusion follows logically if which one of the following is assumed?

47. Car companies solicit consumer information on such human factors as whether a seat is comfortable or whether a set of controls is easy to However, designer interaction with consumers is superior to survey data; the data may tell the designer why a feature on last year’s model was given a low rating, but data will not explain how that feature needs to be changed in order to receive a higher rating.

The reasoning above conforms most closely to which one of the following propositions?

48. During the nineteenth century, the French academy of art was a major financial sponsor of painting and sculpture in France; sponsorship by private individuals had decreased dramatically by this Because the academy discouraged innovation in the arts, there was little innovation in nineteenth century French sculpture. Yet nineteenth century French painting showed a remarkable degree of innovation.
Which one of the following, if true, most helps to explain the difference between the amount of innovation in French painting and the amount of innovation in French sculpture during the nineteenth century?

49. Situation: Someone living in a cold climate buys a winter coat that is stylish but not warm in order to appear

Analysis: People are sometimes willing to sacrifice sensual comfort or pleasure for the sake of appearances.

50. After replacing his old gas water heater with a new, pilotless, gas water heater that is rated as highly efficient, Jimmy’s gas bills

Each of the following, if true, contributes to an explanation of the increase mentioned above EXCEPT:

51. Carolyn: The artist Marc Quinn has displayed, behind a glass plate, biologically replicated fragments of Sir John Sulston’s DNA, calling it a “conceptual portrait” of But to be a portrait, something must bear a recognizable resemblance to its subject.

Arnold: I disagree. Quinn’s conceptual portrait is a maximally realistic portrait, for it holds actual instructions according to which Sulston was created.

52. Many corporations have begun decorating their halls with motivational posters in hopes of boosting their employees’ motivation to work However, almost all employees at these corporations are already motivated to work productively. So these corporations’ use of motivational posters is unlikely to achieve its intended purpose.

The reasoning in the argument is most vulnerable to criticism on the grounds that the argument

53. Atrens: An early entomologist observed ants carrying particles to neighboring ant colonies and inferred that the ants were bringing food to their neighbors. Further research, however, revealed that the ants were emptying their own colony’s dumping Thus, the early entomologist was wrong.

Atrens’s conclusion follows logically if which one of the following is assumed?

54. Jablonski, who owns a car dealership, has donated cars to driver education programs at area schools for over five She found the statistics on car accidents to be disturbing, and she wanted to do something to encourage better driving in young drivers. Some members of the community have shown their support for this action by purchasing cars from Jablonski’s dealership.
Which one of the following propositions is best illustrated by the passage?

55. Antonio: One can live a life of moderation by never deviating from the middle But then one loses the joy of spontaneity and misses the opportunities that come to those who are occasionally willing to take great chances, or to go too far.

Marla: But one who, in the interests of moderation, never risks going too far is actually failing to live a life of moderation: one must be moderate even in one’s moderation.

Antonio and Marla disagree over

56. Advertisement: Fabric-Soft leaves clothes soft and fluffy, and its fresh scent is a We conducted a test using over 100 consumers to prove Fabric-Soft is best. Each consumer was given one towel washed with Fabric-Soft and one towel washed without it. Ninety-nine percent of the consumers preferred the Fabric-Soft towel. So Fabric-Soft is the most effective fabric softener available.

The advertisement’s reasoning is most vulnerable to criticism on the grounds that it fails to consider whether

57. Naturalist: The recent claims that the Tasmanian tiger is not extinct are The Tasmanian tiger’s natural habitat was taken over by sheep farming decades ago, resulting in the animal’s systematic elimination from the area. Since then naturalists working in the region have discovered no hard evidence of its survival, such as carcasses or tracks. In spite of alleged sightings of the animal, the Tasmanian tiger no longer exists.

Which one of the following is an assumption on which the naturalist’s argument depends?

58. Advertisers have learned that people are more easily encouraged to develop positive attitudes about things toward which they originally have neutral or even negative attitudes if those things are linked, with pictorial help rather than exclusively through prose, to things about which they already have positive Therefore, advertisers are likely to .

Which one of the following most logically completes the argument?

59. Feathers recently taken from seabirds stuffed and preserved in the 1880s have been found to contain only half as much mercury as feathers recently taken from living birds of the same Since mercury that accumulates in a seabird’s feathers as the feathers grow is derived from fish eaten by the bird, these results indicate that mercury levels in saltwater fish are higher now than they were 100 years ago.

The argument depends on assuming that

60. Novel X and Novel Y are both semiautobiographical novels and contain many very similar themes and situations, which might lead one to suspect plagiarism on the part of one of the However, it is more likely that the similarity of themes and situations in the two novels is merely coincidental, since both authors are from very similar backgrounds and have led similar lives.

Which one of the following most accurately expresses the conclusion drawn in the argument?

61. Therapist: Cognitive psychotherapy focuses on changing a patient’s conscious Thus, cognitive psychotherapy is likely to be more effective at helping patients overcome psychological problems than are forms of psychotherapy that focus on changing unconscious beliefs and desires, since only conscious beliefs are under the patient’s direct conscious control.

Which one of the following, if true, would most strengthen the therapist’s argument?

62. Commentator: In academic scholarship, sources are always cited, and methodology and theoretical assumptions are set out, so as to allow critical study, replication, and expansion of In open-source software, the code in which the program is written can be viewed and modified by individual users for their purposes without getting permission from the producer or paying a fee. In contrast, the code of proprietary software is kept secret, and modifications can be made only by the producer, for a fee. This shows that open-source software better matches the values embodied in academic scholarship, and since scholarship is central to the mission of universities, universities should use only open-source software.
The commentator’s reasoning most closely conforms to which one of the following principles?

63. A consumer magazine surveyed people who had sought a psychologist’s help with a personal Of those responding who had received treatment for 6 months or less, 20 percent claimed that treatment “made things a lot better.” Of those responding who had received longer treatment, 36 percent claimed that treatment “made things a lot better.” Therefore, psychological treatment lasting more than 6 months is more effective than shorter-term treatment.

Which one of the following, if true, most seriously weakens the argument?

64. Philosopher: Nations are not literally persons; they have no thoughts or feelings, and, literally speaking, they perform no Thus they have no moral rights or responsibilities. But no nation can survive unless many of its citizens attribute such rights and responsibilities to it, for nothing else could prompt people to make the sacrifices national citizenship demands. Obviously, then, a nation .

Which one of the following most logically completes the philosopher’s argument?

65. When exercising the muscles in one’s back, it is important, in order to maintain a healthy back, to exercise the muscles on opposite sides of the spine After all, balanced muscle development is needed to maintain a healthy back, since the muscles on opposite sides of the spine must pull equally in opposing directions to keep the back in proper alignment and protect the spine.

Which one of the following is an assumption required by the argument?

66. Editorialist: In all cultures, it is almost universally accepted that one has a moral duty to prevent members of one’s family from being Thus, few would deny that if a person is known by the person’s parents to be falsely accused of a crime, it would be morally right for the parents to hide the accused from the police. Hence, it is also likely to be widely accepted that it is sometimes morally right to obstruct the police in their work.

The reasoning in the editorialist’s argument is most vulnerable to criticism on the grounds that this argument

67. Editor: Many candidates say that if elected they will reduce governmental intrusion into voters’ But voters actually elect politicians who instead promise that the government will provide assistance to solve their most pressing problems. Governmental assistance, however, costs money, and money can come only from taxes, which can be considered a form of governmental intrusion. Thus, governmental intrusion into the lives of voters will rarely be substantially reduced over time in a democracy.
Which one of the following, if true, would most strengthen the editor’s argument?

68. We should accept the proposal to demolish the old train station, because the local historical society, which vehemently opposes this, is dominated by people who have no commitment to long-term economic well-being. Preserving old buildings creates an impediment to new development, which is critical to economic

The flawed reasoning exhibited by the argument above is most similar to that exhibited by which one of the following arguments?

69. Ethicist: On average, animals raised on grain must be fed sixteen pounds of grain to produce one pound of A pound of meat is more nutritious for humans than a pound of grain, but sixteen pounds of grain could feed many more people than could a pound of meat. With grain yields leveling off, large areas of farmland going out of production each year, and the population rapidly expanding, we must accept the fact that consumption of meat will soon be morally unacceptable.

Which one of the following, if true, would most weaken the ethicist’s argument?

70. If the price it pays for coffee beans continues to increase, the Coffee Shoppe will have to increase its In that case, either the Coffee Shoppe will begin selling noncoffee products or its coffee sales will decrease. But selling noncoffee products will decrease the Coffee Shoppe’s overall profitability. Moreover, the Coffee Shoppe can avoid a decrease in overall profitability only if its coffee sales do not decrease.

Which one of the following statements follows logically from the statements above?

71. Political candidates’ speeches are loaded with promises and with expressions of good intention, but one must not forget that the politicians’ purpose in giving these speeches is to get themselves Clearly, then, these speeches are selfishly motivated and the promises made in them are unreliable.

Which one of the following most accurately describes a flaw in the argument above?

72. Sociologist: Romantics who claim that people are not born evil but may be made evil by the imperfect institutions that they form cannot be right, for they misunderstand the causal relationship between people and their After all, institutions are merely collections of people.
Which one of the following principles, if valid, would most help to justify the sociologist’s argument?

73. Some anthropologists argue that the human species could not have survived prehistoric times if the species had not evolved the ability to cope with diverse natural However, there is considerable evidence that Australopithecus afarensis, a prehistoric species related to early humans, also thrived in a diverse array of environments, but became extinct. Hence, the anthropologists’ claim is false.

The reasoning in the argument is most vulnerable to criticism on the grounds that the argument

Directions: Each set of questions in this section is based on a single passage or a pair of passages. The questions are to be answered on the basis of what is stated or implied in the passage or pair of passages. For some of the questions, more than one of the choices could conceivably answer the question. However, you are to choose the best answer; that is, the response that most accurately and completely answers the question, and blacken the corresponding space on your answer sheet.

For decades, there has been a deep rift between poetry and fiction in the United States, especially in academic settings; graduate writing programs in universities, for example, train students as poets or as writers of fiction, but almost never as both. Both poets and writers of fiction have tended to support this separation, in large part because the current conventional wisdom holds that poetry should be elliptical and lyrical, reflecting inner states and processes of thought or feeling, whereas character and narrative events are the stock-in-trade of fiction.

Certainly it is true that poetry and fiction are distinct genres, but why have specialized education and literary territoriality resulted from this distinction? The answer lies perhaps in a widespread attitude in U.S. culture, which often casts a suspicious eye on the generalist. Those with knowledge and expertise in multiple areas risk charges of dilettantism, as if ability in one field is diluted or compromised by  accomplishment in another.

Fortunately, there are signs that the bias against writers who cross generic boundaries is diminishing; several recent writers are known and respected for their work in both genres. One important example of this trend is Rita Dove, an African American writer highly acclaimed for both her poetry and her fiction. A few years ago, speaking at a conference entitled “Poets Who Write Fiction,” Dove expressed gentle incredulity about the habit of segregating the genres. She had grown up reading and loving both fiction and poetry, she said, unaware of any purported danger lurking in attempts to mix the two. She also studied for some time in Germany, where, she observes, “Poets write plays, novelists compose libretti, playwrights write novels—they would not understand our restrictiveness.”

It makes little sense, Dove believes, to persist in the restrictive approach to poetry and fiction prevalent in the U.S., because each genre shares in the nature of the other. Indeed, her poetry offers example after example of what can only be properly regarded as lyric narrative. Her use of language in these poems is undeniably lyrical—that is, it evokes emotion and inner states without requiring the reader to organize ideas or events in a particular linear structure. Yet this lyric expression simultaneously presents the elements of a plot in such a way that the reader is led repeatedly to take account of clusters of narrative details within the lyric flow. Thus while the language is lyrical, it often comes to constitute, cumulatively, a work of narrative fiction. Similarly, many passages in her fiction, though undeniably prose, achieve the status of lyric narrative through the use of poetic rhythms and elliptical expression. In short, Dove bridges the gap between poetry and fiction not only by writing in both genres, but also by fusing the two genres within individual 

75. Which one of the following is most analogous to the literary achievements that the author attributes to Dove?

76. According to the passage, in the S. there is a widely held view that

77. The author’s attitude toward the deep rift between poetry and fiction in the S. can be most accurately described as one of

78. In the passage the author conjectures that a cause of the deep rift between fiction and poetry in the United States may be that

79. In the context of the passage, the author’s primary purpose in mentioning Dove’s experience in Germany (lines 32–36) is to

80. It can be inferred from the passage that the author would be most likely to believe which one of the following?

81. If this passage had been excerpted from a longer text, which one of the following predictions about the near future of S. literature would be most likely to appear in that text?

The two passages discuss recent scientific research on music. They are adapted from two different papers presented at a scholarly conference.

Passage A

Did music and human language originate separately or together? Both systems use intonation and rhythm to communicate emotions. Both can be produced vocally or with tools, and people can produce both music and language silently to themselves.

Brain imaging studies suggest that music and language are part of one large, vastly complicated, neurological system for processing sound. In fact, fewer differences than similarities exist between the neurological processing of the two. One could think of the two activities as different radio programs that can be broadcast over the same hardware. One noteworthy difference, though, is that, generally speaking, people are better at language than music. In music, anyone can listen easily enough, but most people do not perform well, and in many cultures composition is left to specialists. In language, by contrast, nearly everyone actively performs and composes.

Given their shared neurological basis, it appears that music and language evolved together as brain size increased over the course of hominid evolution. But the primacy of language over music that we can observe today suggests that language, not music, was the primary function natural selection operated on.

Music, it would seem, had little adaptive value of its own, and most likely developed on the coattails of language.

Passage B

Darwin claimed that since “neither the enjoyment nor the capacity of producing musical notes are faculties of the least [practical] use to man they must be ranked amongst the most mysterious with which he is endowed.” I suggest that the enjoyment of and the capacity to produce musical notes are faculties of indispensable use to mothers and their infants and that it is in the emotional bonds created by the interaction of mother and child that we can discover the evolutionary origins of human music.

Even excluding lullabies, which parents sing to infants, human mothers and infants under six months of age engage in ritualized, sequential behaviors, involving vocal, facial, and bodily interactions. Using face-to-face mother-infant interactions filmed at 24 frames per second, researchers have shown that mothers and infants jointly construct mutually improvised interactions in which each partner tracks the actions of the other. Such episodes last from one-half second to three seconds and are composed of musical elements—variations in pitch, rhythm, timbre, volume, and tempo. What evolutionary advantage would such behavior have? In the course of hominid evolution, brain size increased rapidly. Contemporaneously, the increase in bipedality caused the birth canal to narrow. This resulted in hominid infants being born ever-more prematurely, leaving them much more helpless at birth. This helplessness necessitated longer, better maternal care. Under such conditions, the emotional bonds created in the premusical mother-infant interactions we observe in Homo sapiens today—behavior whose neurological basis essentially constitutes the capacity to make and enjoy music—would have conferred considerable evolutionary advantage.

82. Both passages were written primarily in order to answer which one of the following questions?

83. Each of the two passages mentions the relation of music to

84. It can be inferred that the authors of the two passages would be most likely to disagree over whether

85. The authors would be most likely to agree on the answer to which one of the following questions regarding musical capacity in humans?

86. Which one of the following principles underlies the arguments in both passages?

87. Which one of the following most accurately characterizes a relationship between the two passages?

The World Wide Web, a network of electronically produced and interconnected (or “linked”) sites, called pages, that are accessible via personal computer, raises legal issues about the rights of owners of intellectual property, notably those who create documents for inclusion on Web pages. Some of these owners of intellectual property claim that unless copyright law is strengthened, intellectual property on the Web will not be protected from copyright infringement. Web users, however, claim that if their ability to access information on Web pages is reduced, the Web cannot live up to its potential as an open, interactive medium of communication.

The debate arises from the Web’s ability to link one document to another. Links between sites are analogous to the inclusion in a printed text of references to other works, but with one difference: the cited document is instantly retrievable by a user who activates the link. This immediate accessibility creates a problem, since current copyright laws give owners of intellectual property the right to sue a distributor of unauthorized copies of their material even if that distributor did not personally make the copies. If person A, the author of a document, puts the document on a Web page, and person B, the creator of another Web page, creates a link to A’s document, is B committing copyright infringement?

To answer this question, it must first be determined who controls distribution of a document on the Web. When A places a document on a Web page, this is comparable to recording an outgoing message on one’s telephone answering machine for others to hear. When B creates a link to A’s document, this is akin to B’s giving out A’s telephone number, thereby allowing third parties to hear the outgoing message for themselves. Anyone who calls can listen to the message; that is its purpose. While B’s link may indeed facilitate access to A’s document, the crucial point is that A, simply by placing that document on the Web, is thereby offering it for distribution. Therefore, even if B leads others to the document, it is A who actually controls access to it. Hence creating a link to a document is not the same as making or distributing a copy of that document. Moreover, techniques are already available by which A can restrict access to a document. For example, A may require a password to gain entry to A’s Web page, just as a telephone owner can request an unlisted number and disclose it only to selected parties. Such a solution would compromise the openness of the Web somewhat, but not as much as the threat of copyright infringement litigation. Changing copyright law to benefit owners of intellectual property is thus ill-advised because it would impede the development of the Web as a public forum dedicated to the free exchange of ideas.

88. Which one of the following most accurately expresses the main point of the passage?

89. Which one of the following is closest in meaning to the term “strengthened” as that term is used in line 8 of the passage?

90. With which one of the following claims about documents placed on Web pages would the author be most likely to agree