IELTS-3

The general assumption is that older workers are paid more in spite of, rather than because
of, their productivity. That might partly explain why, when employers are under pressure to
cut costs, they persuade a 55-year old to take early retirement. Take away seniority-based
pay scales, and older workers may become a much more attractive employment proposition.
But most employers and many workers are uncomfortable with the idea of reducing
someone’s pay in later life – although manual workers on piece-rates often earn less as they
get older. So retaining the services of older workers may mean employing them in different
ways.
One innovation was devised by IBM Belgium. Faced with the need to cut staff costs, and
having decided to concentrate cuts on 55 to 60-year olds, IBM set up a separate company
called Skill Team, which re-employed any of the early retired who wanted to go on working
up to the age of 60. An employee who joined Skill Team at the age of 55 on a five-year
contract would work for 58% of his time, over the full period, for 88% of his last IBM salary.
The company offered services to IBM, thus allowing it to retain access to some of the
intellectual capital it would otherwise have lost.
The best way to tempt the old to go on working may be to build on such ‘bridge’ jobs: parttime or temporary employment that creates a more gradual transition from full-time work to
retirement. Studies have found that, in the United States, nearly half of all men and women
who had been in full-time jobs in middle age moved into such ‘bridge’ jobs at the end of their
working lives. In general, it is the best-paid and worst-paid who carry on working. There
seem to be two very different types of bridge job-holder – those who continue working
because they have to and those who continue working because they want to, even though
they could afford to retire.
If the job market grows more flexible, the old may find more jobs that suit them. Often, they
will be self-employed. Sometimes, they may start their own businesses: a study by David
Storey of Warwick University found that in Britain 70% of businesses started by people over
55 survived, compared with an overall national average of only 19%. But whatever pattern of
employment they choose, in the coming years the skills of these ‘grey workers’ will have to
be increasingly acknowledged and rewarded.

The general assumption is that older workers are paid more in spite of, rather than because
of, their productivity. That might partly explain why, when employers are under pressure to
cut costs, they persuade a 55-year old to take early retirement. Take away seniority-based
pay scales, and older workers may become a much more attractive employment proposition.
But most employers and many workers are uncomfortable with the idea of reducing
someone’s pay in later life – although manual workers on piece-rates often earn less as they
get older. So retaining the services of older workers may mean employing them in different
ways.
One innovation was devised by IBM Belgium. Faced with the need to cut staff costs, and
having decided to concentrate cuts on 55 to 60-year olds, IBM set up a separate company
called Skill Team, which re-employed any of the early retired who wanted to go on working
up to the age of 60. An employee who joined Skill Team at the age of 55 on a five-year
contract would work for 58% of his time, over the full period, for 88% of his last IBM salary.
The company offered services to IBM, thus allowing it to retain access to some of the
intellectual capital it would otherwise have lost.
The best way to tempt the old to go on working may be to build on such ‘bridge’ jobs: parttime or temporary employment that creates a more gradual transition from full-time work to
retirement. Studies have found that, in the United States, nearly half of all men and women
who had been in full-time jobs in middle age moved into such ‘bridge’ jobs at the end of their
working lives. In general, it is the best-paid and worst-paid who carry on working. There
seem to be two very different types of bridge job-holder – those who continue working
because they have to and those who continue working because they want to, even though
they could afford to retire.
If the job market grows more flexible, the old may find more jobs that suit them. Often, they
will be self-employed. Sometimes, they may start their own businesses: a study by David
Storey of Warwick University found that in Britain 70% of businesses started by people over
55 survived, compared with an overall national average of only 19%. But whatever pattern of
employment they choose, in the coming years the skills of these ‘grey workers’ will have to
be increasingly acknowledged and rewarded.

The general assumption is that older workers are paid more in spite of, rather than because
of, their productivity. That might partly explain why, when employers are under pressure to
cut costs, they persuade a 55-year old to take early retirement. Take away seniority-based
pay scales, and older workers may become a much more attractive employment proposition.
But most employers and many workers are uncomfortable with the idea of reducing
someone’s pay in later life – although manual workers on piece-rates often earn less as they
get older. So retaining the services of older workers may mean employing them in different
ways.
One innovation was devised by IBM Belgium. Faced with the need to cut staff costs, and
having decided to concentrate cuts on 55 to 60-year olds, IBM set up a separate company
called Skill Team, which re-employed any of the early retired who wanted to go on working
up to the age of 60. An employee who joined Skill Team at the age of 55 on a five-year
contract would work for 58% of his time, over the full period, for 88% of his last IBM salary.
The company offered services to IBM, thus allowing it to retain access to some of the
intellectual capital it would otherwise have lost.
The best way to tempt the old to go on working may be to build on such ‘bridge’ jobs: parttime or temporary employment that creates a more gradual transition from full-time work to
retirement. Studies have found that, in the United States, nearly half of all men and women
who had been in full-time jobs in middle age moved into such ‘bridge’ jobs at the end of their
working lives. In general, it is the best-paid and worst-paid who carry on working. There
seem to be two very different types of bridge job-holder – those who continue working
because they have to and those who continue working because they want to, even though
they could afford to retire.
If the job market grows more flexible, the old may find more jobs that suit them. Often, they
will be self-employed. Sometimes, they may start their own businesses: a study by David
Storey of Warwick University found that in Britain 70% of businesses started by people over
55 survived, compared with an overall national average of only 19%. But whatever pattern of
employment they choose, in the coming years the skills of these ‘grey workers’ will have to
be increasingly acknowledged and rewarded

P1: Penguins breed by producing eggs. Both parents take turns in incubating the eggs, which typically
lasts for eight weeks, although larger eggs from larger birds might take a little longer. When the chick
is fully developed, it carefully chisels its way out of the egg using a little notch at the end of its beak.
Upon emerging, the chicks are dependent on their parents to protect them from the elements, from
predators and for their daily supply of food.
P2: As in the incubation stage, both parents take it in turn to care for their young by alternating
between the roles of food gather and guardian of the nest. The young are always in close proximity to
their parents, either sitting on their parents' feet or under their bellies. As days go by, a thick
protective coat of downy feathers begins to grow which keeps the chicks warm and slowly allows
them to seek independence from the nest within confined limits.
P3: As the chicks rapidly put on weight, providing adequate quantities becomes a problem so both
parents need to hunt for food. Since the chicks cannot be left unprotected, they are gathered together in
groups, often tightly packed together for extra security and warmth. When the chicks reach a size
approximating their parents, they begin to moult into juvenile plumage and are ready to take their first
trips out to sea.
P4: The time from birth to this stage can vary from about six weeks to double that time in most
species but some penguin groups take many months.
P5: The first few weeks at sea are critical. Juveniles need to quickly learn where the best places to
catch their food are and how to avoid the predators that lurk in the sea. The research that has been
done so far indicates that less than one half of the young penguins that go out to sea each year survive
into adulthood.
P6: At the one-year stage, moulting happens again at which point the young start to look very much
like their parents. At age two, most species of penguin are biologically programmed to turn their
attention to breeding. Breeding then takes place every year. Penguins in the wild probably live up to
about 20 years of age, although research has yet to confirm this

P1: Penguins breed by producing eggs. Both parents take turns in incubating the eggs, which typically
lasts for eight weeks, although larger eggs from larger birds might take a little longer. When the chick
is fully developed, it carefully chisels its way out of the egg using a little notch at the end of its beak.
Upon emerging, the chicks are dependent on their parents to protect them from the elements, from
predators and for their daily supply of food.
P2: As in the incubation stage, both parents take it in turn to care for their young by alternating
between the roles of food gather and guardian of the nest. The young are always in close proximity to
their parents, either sitting on their parents' feet or under their bellies. As days go by, a thick
protective coat of downy feathers begins to grow which keeps the chicks warm and slowly allows
them to seek independence from the nest within confined limits.
P3: As the chicks rapidly put on weight, providing adequate quantities becomes a problem so both
parents need to hunt for food. Since the chicks cannot be left unprotected, they are gathered together in
groups, often tightly packed together for extra security and warmth. When the chicks reach a size
approximating their parents, they begin to moult into juvenile plumage and are ready to take their first
trips out to sea.
P4: The time from birth to this stage can vary from about six weeks to double that time in most
species but some penguin groups take many months.
P5: The first few weeks at sea are critical. Juveniles need to quickly learn where the best places to
catch their food are and how to avoid the predators that lurk in the sea. The research that has been
done so far indicates that less than one half of the young penguins that go out to sea each year survive
into adulthood.
P6: At the one-year stage, moulting happens again at which point the young start to look very much
like their parents. At age two, most species of penguin are biologically programmed to turn their
attention to breeding. Breeding then takes place every year. Penguins in the wild probably live up to
about 20 years of age, although research has yet to confirm this

lasts for eight weeks, although larger eggs from larger birds might take a little longer. When the chick
is fully developed, it carefully chisels its way out of the egg using a little notch at the end of its beak.
Upon emerging, the chicks are dependent on their parents to protect them from the elements, from
predators and for their daily supply of food.
P2: As in the incubation stage, both parents take it in turn to care for their young by alternating
between the roles of food gather and guardian of the nest. The young are always in close proximity to
their parents, either sitting on their parents' feet or under their bellies. As days go by, a thick
protective coat of downy feathers begins to grow which keeps the chicks warm and slowly allows
them to seek independence from the nest within confined limits.
P3: As the chicks rapidly put on weight, providing adequate quantities becomes a problem so both
parents need to hunt for food. Since the chicks cannot be left unprotected, they are gathered together in
groups, often tightly packed together for extra security and warmth. When the chicks reach a size
approximating their parents, they begin to moult into juvenile plumage and are ready to take their first
trips out to sea.
P4: The time from birth to this stage can vary from about six weeks to double that time in most
species but some penguin groups take many months.
P5: The first few weeks at sea are critical. Juveniles need to quickly learn where the best places to
catch their food are and how to avoid the predators that lurk in the sea. The research that has been
done so far indicates that less than one half of the young penguins that go out to sea each year survive
into adulthood.
P6: At the one-year stage, moulting happens again at which point the young start to look very much
like their parents. At age two, most species of penguin are biologically programmed to turn their
attention to breeding. Breeding then takes place every year. Penguins in the wild probably live up to
about 20 years of age, although research has yet to confirm this

lasts for eight weeks, although larger eggs from larger birds might take a little longer. When the chick
is fully developed, it carefully chisels its way out of the egg using a little notch at the end of its beak.
Upon emerging, the chicks are dependent on their parents to protect them from the elements, from
predators and for their daily supply of food.
P2: As in the incubation stage, both parents take it in turn to care for their young by alternating
between the roles of food gather and guardian of the nest. The young are always in close proximity to
their parents, either sitting on their parents' feet or under their bellies. As days go by, a thick
protective coat of downy feathers begins to grow which keeps the chicks warm and slowly allows
them to seek independence from the nest within confined limits.
P3: As the chicks rapidly put on weight, providing adequate quantities becomes a problem so both
parents need to hunt for food. Since the chicks cannot be left unprotected, they are gathered together in
groups, often tightly packed together for extra security and warmth. When the chicks reach a size
approximating their parents, they begin to moult into juvenile plumage and are ready to take their first
trips out to sea.
P4: The time from birth to this stage can vary from about six weeks to double that time in most
species but some penguin groups take many months.
P5: The first few weeks at sea are critical. Juveniles need to quickly learn where the best places to
catch their food are and how to avoid the predators that lurk in the sea. The research that has been
done so far indicates that less than one half of the young penguins that go out to sea each year survive
into adulthood.
P6: At the one-year stage, moulting happens again at which point the young start to look very much
like their parents. At age two, most species of penguin are biologically programmed to turn their
attention to breeding. Breeding then takes place every year. Penguins in the wild probably live up to
about 20 years of age, although research has yet to confirm this

lasts for eight weeks, although larger eggs from larger birds might take a little longer. When the chick
is fully developed, it carefully chisels its way out of the egg using a little notch at the end of its beak.
Upon emerging, the chicks are dependent on their parents to protect them from the elements, from
predators and for their daily supply of food.
P2: As in the incubation stage, both parents take it in turn to care for their young by alternating
between the roles of food gather and guardian of the nest. The young are always in close proximity to
their parents, either sitting on their parents' feet or under their bellies. As days go by, a thick
protective coat of downy feathers begins to grow which keeps the chicks warm and slowly allows
them to seek independence from the nest within confined limits.
P3: As the chicks rapidly put on weight, providing adequate quantities becomes a problem so both
parents need to hunt for food. Since the chicks cannot be left unprotected, they are gathered together in
groups, often tightly packed together for extra security and warmth. When the chicks reach a size
approximating their parents, they begin to moult into juvenile plumage and are ready to take their first
trips out to sea.
P4: The time from birth to this stage can vary from about six weeks to double that time in most
species but some penguin groups take many months.
P5: The first few weeks at sea are critical. Juveniles need to quickly learn where the best places to
catch their food are and how to avoid the predators that lurk in the sea. The research that has been
done so far indicates that less than one half of the young penguins that go out to sea each year survive
into adulthood.
P6: At the one-year stage, moulting happens again at which point the young start to look very much
like their parents. At age two, most species of penguin are biologically programmed to turn their
attention to breeding. Breeding then takes place every year. Penguins in the wild probably live up to
about 20 years of age, although research has yet to confirm this

lasts for eight weeks, although larger eggs from larger birds might take a little longer. When the chick
is fully developed, it carefully chisels its way out of the egg using a little notch at the end of its beak.
Upon emerging, the chicks are dependent on their parents to protect them from the elements, from
predators and for their daily supply of food.
P2: As in the incubation stage, both parents take it in turn to care for their young by alternating
between the roles of food gather and guardian of the nest. The young are always in close proximity to
their parents, either sitting on their parents' feet or under their bellies. As days go by, a thick
protective coat of downy feathers begins to grow which keeps the chicks warm and slowly allows
them to seek independence from the nest within confined limits.
P3: As the chicks rapidly put on weight, providing adequate quantities becomes a problem so both
parents need to hunt for food. Since the chicks cannot be left unprotected, they are gathered together in
groups, often tightly packed together for extra security and warmth. When the chicks reach a size
approximating their parents, they begin to moult into juvenile plumage and are ready to take their first
trips out to sea.
P4: The time from birth to this stage can vary from about six weeks to double that time in most
species but some penguin groups take many months.
P5: The first few weeks at sea are critical. Juveniles need to quickly learn where the best places to
catch their food are and how to avoid the predators that lurk in the sea. The research that has been
done so far indicates that less than one half of the young penguins that go out to sea each year survive
into adulthood.
P6: At the one-year stage, moulting happens again at which point the young start to look very much
like their parents. At age two, most species of penguin are biologically programmed to turn their
attention to breeding. Breeding then takes place every year. Penguins in the wild probably live up to
about 20 years of age, although research has yet to confirm this

P1: The severity of an earthquake can be expressed in several ways. The magnitude of an earthquake,
usually expressed by the Richter Scale, is a measure of the amplitude of the seismic waves. The
moment magnitude of an earthquake is a measure of the amount of energy released - an amount that
can be estimated from seismograph readings. The intensity, as expressed by the Modified Mercalli
Scale, is a subjective measure that describes how strong a shock was felt at a particular location.
P2: The Richter Scale, named after Dr. Charles F. Richter, is the best-known scale for measuring the
magnitude of earthquakes. This scale is logarithmic so that a recording of 7, for example, indicates a
disturbance with ground motion 10 times as large as a recording of 6. A quake of magnitude 2 is the
smallest quake normally felt by people. Earthquakes with a Richter value of 6 or more are commonly
considered major; great earthquakes have a magnitude of 8 or more on the Richter Scale.
P3: The Modified Mercalli Scale expresses the intensity of an earthquake's effects in a given locality
in values ranging from I to XII. The most commonly used adaptation covers the range of intensity from
the condition of "I -- not felt except by a very few under especially favorable conditions, " to "XII --
damage total. Lines of sight and level are distorted. Objects thrown upward into the air." Evaluation
of earthquake intensity can be made only after eyewitness reports and results of field investigations
are studied and interpreted. The maximum intensity experienced in the Alaska earthquake of 1964
was X; damage from the San Francisco and New Madrid earthquakes reached a maximum intensity of
XI.
P4: An earthquake's destructiveness depends on many factors. In addition to magnitude and the local
geologic conditions, these factors include the focal depth, the distance from the epicenter, and the
design of buildings and other structures. The extent of damage also depends on the density of
population and construction in the area shaken by the quake.

P1: The severity of an earthquake can be expressed in several ways. The magnitude of an earthquake,
usually expressed by the Richter Scale, is a measure of the amplitude of the seismic waves. The
moment magnitude of an earthquake is a measure of the amount of energy released - an amount that
can be estimated from seismograph readings. The intensity, as expressed by the Modified Mercalli
Scale, is a subjective measure that describes how strong a shock was felt at a particular location.
P2: The Richter Scale, named after Dr. Charles F. Richter, is the best-known scale for measuring the
magnitude of earthquakes. This scale is logarithmic so that a recording of 7, for example, indicates a
disturbance with ground motion 10 times as large as a recording of 6. A quake of magnitude 2 is the
smallest quake normally felt by people. Earthquakes with a Richter value of 6 or more are commonly
considered major; great earthquakes have a magnitude of 8 or more on the Richter Scale.
P3: The Modified Mercalli Scale expresses the intensity of an earthquake's effects in a given locality
in values ranging from I to XII. The most commonly used adaptation covers the range of intensity from
the condition of "I -- not felt except by a very few under especially favorable conditions, " to "XII --
damage total. Lines of sight and level are distorted. Objects thrown upward into the air." Evaluation
of earthquake intensity can be made only after eyewitness reports and results of field investigations
are studied and interpreted. The maximum intensity experienced in the Alaska earthquake of 1964
was X; damage from the San Francisco and New Madrid earthquakes reached a maximum intensity of
XI.
P4: An earthquake's destructiveness depends on many factors. In addition to magnitude and the local
geologic conditions, these factors include the focal depth, the distance from the epicenter, and the
design of buildings and other structures. The extent of damage also depends on the density of
population and construction in the area shaken by the quake.

P1: The severity of an earthquake can be expressed in several ways. The magnitude of an earthquake,
usually expressed by the Richter Scale, is a measure of the amplitude of the seismic waves. The
moment magnitude of an earthquake is a measure of the amount of energy released - an amount that
can be estimated from seismograph readings. The intensity, as expressed by the Modified Mercalli
Scale, is a subjective measure that describes how strong a shock was felt at a particular location.
P2: The Richter Scale, named after Dr. Charles F. Richter, is the best-known scale for measuring the
magnitude of earthquakes. This scale is logarithmic so that a recording of 7, for example, indicates a
disturbance with ground motion 10 times as large as a recording of 6. A quake of magnitude 2 is the
smallest quake normally felt by people. Earthquakes with a Richter value of 6 or more are commonly
considered major; great earthquakes have a magnitude of 8 or more on the Richter Scale.
P3: The Modified Mercalli Scale expresses the intensity of an earthquake's effects in a given locality
in values ranging from I to XII. The most commonly used adaptation covers the range of intensity from
the condition of "I -- not felt except by a very few under especially favorable conditions, " to "XII --
damage total. Lines of sight and level are distorted. Objects thrown upward into the air." Evaluation
of earthquake intensity can be made only after eyewitness reports and results of field investigations
are studied and interpreted. The maximum intensity experienced in the Alaska earthquake of 1964
was X; damage from the San Francisco and New Madrid earthquakes reached a maximum intensity of
XI.
P4: An earthquake's destructiveness depends on many factors. In addition to magnitude and the local
geologic conditions, these factors include the focal depth, the distance from the epicenter, and the
design of buildings and other structures. The extent of damage also depends on the density of
population and construction in the area shaken by the quake.

P1: The severity of an earthquake can be expressed in several ways. The magnitude of an earthquake,
usually expressed by the Richter Scale, is a measure of the amplitude of the seismic waves. The
moment magnitude of an earthquake is a measure of the amount of energy released - an amount that
can be estimated from seismograph readings. The intensity, as expressed by the Modified Mercalli
Scale, is a subjective measure that describes how strong a shock was felt at a particular location.
P2: The Richter Scale, named after Dr. Charles F. Richter, is the best-known scale for measuring the
magnitude of earthquakes. This scale is logarithmic so that a recording of 7, for example, indicates a
disturbance with ground motion 10 times as large as a recording of 6. A quake of magnitude 2 is the
smallest quake normally felt by people. Earthquakes with a Richter value of 6 or more are commonly
considered major; great earthquakes have a magnitude of 8 or more on the Richter Scale.
P3: The Modified Mercalli Scale expresses the intensity of an earthquake's effects in a given locality
in values ranging from I to XII. The most commonly used adaptation covers the range of intensity from
the condition of "I -- not felt except by a very few under especially favorable conditions, " to "XII --
damage total. Lines of sight and level are distorted. Objects thrown upward into the air." Evaluation
of earthquake intensity can be made only after eyewitness reports and results of field investigations
are studied and interpreted. The maximum intensity experienced in the Alaska earthquake of 1964
was X; damage from the San Francisco and New Madrid earthquakes reached a maximum intensity of
XI.
P4: An earthquake's destructiveness depends on many factors. In addition to magnitude and the local
geologic conditions, these factors include the focal depth, the distance from the epicenter, and the
design of buildings and other structures. The extent of damage also depends on the density of
population and construction in the area shaken by the quake.

P1: The severity of an earthquake can be expressed in several ways. The magnitude of an earthquake,
usually expressed by the Richter Scale, is a measure of the amplitude of the seismic waves. The
moment magnitude of an earthquake is a measure of the amount of energy released - an amount that
can be estimated from seismograph readings. The intensity, as expressed by the Modified Mercalli
Scale, is a subjective measure that describes how strong a shock was felt at a particular location.
P2: The Richter Scale, named after Dr. Charles F. Richter, is the best-known scale for measuring the
magnitude of earthquakes. This scale is logarithmic so that a recording of 7, for example, indicates a
disturbance with ground motion 10 times as large as a recording of 6. A quake of magnitude 2 is the
smallest quake normally felt by people. Earthquakes with a Richter value of 6 or more are commonly
considered major; great earthquakes have a magnitude of 8 or more on the Richter Scale.
P3: The Modified Mercalli Scale expresses the intensity of an earthquake's effects in a given locality
in values ranging from I to XII. The most commonly used adaptation covers the range of intensity from
the condition of "I -- not felt except by a very few under especially favorable conditions, " to "XII --
damage total. Lines of sight and level are distorted. Objects thrown upward into the air." Evaluation
of earthquake intensity can be made only after eyewitness reports and results of field investigations
are studied and interpreted. The maximum intensity experienced in the Alaska earthquake of 1964
was X; damage from the San Francisco and New Madrid earthquakes reached a maximum intensity of
XI.
P4: An earthquake's destructiveness depends on many factors. In addition to magnitude and the local
geologic conditions, these factors include the focal depth, the distance from the epicenter, and the
design of buildings and other structures. The extent of damage also depends on the density of
population and construction in the area shaken by the quake.

P1: The severity of an earthquake can be expressed in several ways. The magnitude of an earthquake,
usually expressed by the Richter Scale, is a measure of the amplitude of the seismic waves. The
moment magnitude of an earthquake is a measure of the amount of energy released - an amount that
can be estimated from seismograph readings. The intensity, as expressed by the Modified Mercalli
Scale, is a subjective measure that describes how strong a shock was felt at a particular location.
P2: The Richter Scale, named after Dr. Charles F. Richter, is the best-known scale for measuring the
magnitude of earthquakes. This scale is logarithmic so that a recording of 7, for example, indicates a
disturbance with ground motion 10 times as large as a recording of 6. A quake of magnitude 2 is the
smallest quake normally felt by people. Earthquakes with a Richter value of 6 or more are commonly
considered major; great earthquakes have a magnitude of 8 or more on the Richter Scale.
P3: The Modified Mercalli Scale expresses the intensity of an earthquake's effects in a given locality
in values ranging from I to XII. The most commonly used adaptation covers the range of intensity from
the condition of "I -- not felt except by a very few under especially favorable conditions, " to "XII --
damage total. Lines of sight and level are distorted. Objects thrown upward into the air." Evaluation
of earthquake intensity can be made only after eyewitness reports and results of field investigations
are studied and interpreted. The maximum intensity experienced in the Alaska earthquake of 1964
was X; damage from the San Francisco and New Madrid earthquakes reached a maximum intensity of
XI.
P4: An earthquake's destructiveness depends on many factors. In addition to magnitude and the local
geologic conditions, these factors include the focal depth, the distance from the epicenter, and the
design of buildings and other structures. The extent of damage also depends on the density of
population and construction in the area shaken by the quake.

P1: Many countries in the developed and rapidly developing world have come to the realisation that
a far greater number of a country's population need to be at university or other places of higher
education to ensure that their knowledge-based economies can compete with others. At the same time,
there is a strong feeling that universities, traditionally made up of small elites, need to ensure that
disadvantaged groups get equal access. The effect of all this has been the ballooning of student
numbers in Higher Education in the last ten years in many countries from Australia, to South Korea, to
Britain, to Canada and to others.
P2: As numbers rose inexorably, so have costs. Who is to foot the bill? The answer has been
increasingly that costs must be transferred to the individual, as the state sector just does not have the
capacity to fund the expansion that is required. Fees have gone up and will have to continue to rise.
Many people who want access to all that a tertiary education offers have found that they will be faced
with large mountains of debt upon graduation. The question that needs to be asked is whether fee
hikes have discouraged entrance, particularly among those who would suffer the greatest financial
hardship.
P3: The evidence is unclear. Australia and New Zealand were early introducers of increased fees.
The former introduced HECS, which is a combined tuition fee and income-contingent student loan
scheme. The latter introduced and then deregulated student fees. In both cases, participation levels
were largely unaffected by the changes, especially among lower-income families.
P4: A more recent trend has been the adoption of student loan schemes which take the form of soft
loans, popularly tagged "study now, pay later". Many argue that social equity is damaged by the costs;
people from poorer backgrounds will baulk at the costs involved and fail to enrol at universities.
However, some argue that soft loan schemes are more equitable because those who have incurred
debts during their studies stand a greater chance of repaying the loans through increased opportunities
to obtain better-paid jobs.
P5: At a time when many governments are strapped for cash, a shift to "study now, pay later" schemes
will free up funds that could be used to remove barriers at earlier levels of education

P1: Many countries in the developed and rapidly developing world have come to the realisation that
a far greater number of a country's population need to be at university or other places of higher
education to ensure that their knowledge-based economies can compete with others. At the same time,
there is a strong feeling that universities, traditionally made up of small elites, need to ensure that
disadvantaged groups get equal access. The effect of all this has been the ballooning of student
numbers in Higher Education in the last ten years in many countries from Australia, to South Korea, to
Britain, to Canada and to others.
P2: As numbers rose inexorably, so have costs. Who is to foot the bill? The answer has been
increasingly that costs must be transferred to the individual, as the state sector just does not have the
capacity to fund the expansion that is required. Fees have gone up and will have to continue to rise.
Many people who want access to all that a tertiary education offers have found that they will be faced
with large mountains of debt upon graduation. The question that needs to be asked is whether fee
hikes have discouraged entrance, particularly among those who would suffer the greatest financial
hardship.
P3: The evidence is unclear. Australia and New Zealand were early introducers of increased fees.
The former introduced HECS, which is a combined tuition fee and income-contingent student loan
scheme. The latter introduced and then deregulated student fees. In both cases, participation levels
were largely unaffected by the changes, especially among lower-income families.
P4: A more recent trend has been the adoption of student loan schemes which take the form of soft
loans, popularly tagged "study now, pay later". Many argue that social equity is damaged by the costs;
people from poorer backgrounds will baulk at the costs involved and fail to enrol at universities.
However, some argue that soft loan schemes are more equitable because those who have incurred
debts during their studies stand a greater chance of repaying the loans through increased opportunities
to obtain better-paid jobs.
P5: At a time when many governments are strapped for cash, a shift to "study now, pay later" schemes
will free up funds that could be used to remove barriers at earlier levels of education

P1: Many countries in the developed and rapidly developing world have come to the realisation that
a far greater number of a country's population need to be at university or other places of higher
education to ensure that their knowledge-based economies can compete with others. At the same time,
there is a strong feeling that universities, traditionally made up of small elites, need to ensure that
disadvantaged groups get equal access. The effect of all this has been the ballooning of student
numbers in Higher Education in the last ten years in many countries from Australia, to South Korea, to
Britain, to Canada and to others.
P2: As numbers rose inexorably, so have costs. Who is to foot the bill? The answer has been
increasingly that costs must be transferred to the individual, as the state sector just does not have the
capacity to fund the expansion that is required. Fees have gone up and will have to continue to rise.
Many people who want access to all that a tertiary education offers have found that they will be faced
with large mountains of debt upon graduation. The question that needs to be asked is whether fee
hikes have discouraged entrance, particularly among those who would suffer the greatest financial
hardship.
P3: The evidence is unclear. Australia and New Zealand were early introducers of increased fees.
The former introduced HECS, which is a combined tuition fee and income-contingent student loan
scheme. The latter introduced and then deregulated student fees. In both cases, participation levels
were largely unaffected by the changes, especially among lower-income families.
P4: A more recent trend has been the adoption of student loan schemes which take the form of soft
loans, popularly tagged "study now, pay later". Many argue that social equity is damaged by the costs;
people from poorer backgrounds will baulk at the costs involved and fail to enrol at universities.
However, some argue that soft loan schemes are more equitable because those who have incurred
debts during their studies stand a greater chance of repaying the loans through increased opportunities
to obtain better-paid jobs.
P5: At a time when many governments are strapped for cash, a shift to "study now, pay later" schemes
will free up funds that could be used to remove barriers at earlier levels of education

P1: Many countries in the developed and rapidly developing world have come to the realisation that
a far greater number of a country's population need to be at university or other places of higher
education to ensure that their knowledge-based economies can compete with others. At the same time,
there is a strong feeling that universities, traditionally made up of small elites, need to ensure that
disadvantaged groups get equal access. The effect of all this has been the ballooning of student
numbers in Higher Education in the last ten years in many countries from Australia, to South Korea, to
Britain, to Canada and to others.
P2: As numbers rose inexorably, so have costs. Who is to foot the bill? The answer has been
increasingly that costs must be transferred to the individual, as the state sector just does not have the
capacity to fund the expansion that is required. Fees have gone up and will have to continue to rise.
Many people who want access to all that a tertiary education offers have found that they will be faced
with large mountains of debt upon graduation. The question that needs to be asked is whether fee
hikes have discouraged entrance, particularly among those who would suffer the greatest financial
hardship.
P3: The evidence is unclear. Australia and New Zealand were early introducers of increased fees.
The former introduced HECS, which is a combined tuition fee and income-contingent student loan
scheme. The latter introduced and then deregulated student fees. In both cases, participation levels
were largely unaffected by the changes, especially among lower-income families.
P4: A more recent trend has been the adoption of student loan schemes which take the form of soft
loans, popularly tagged "study now, pay later". Many argue that social equity is damaged by the costs;
people from poorer backgrounds will baulk at the costs involved and fail to enrol at universities.
However, some argue that soft loan schemes are more equitable because those who have incurred
debts during their studies stand a greater chance of repaying the loans through increased opportunities
to obtain better-paid jobs.
P5: At a time when many governments are strapped for cash, a shift to "study now, pay later" schemes
will free up funds that could be used to remove barriers at earlier levels of education.

P1: Many countries in the developed and rapidly developing world have come to the realisation that
a far greater number of a country's population need to be at university or other places of higher
education to ensure that their knowledge-based economies can compete with others. At the same time,
there is a strong feeling that universities, traditionally made up of small elites, need to ensure that
disadvantaged groups get equal access. The effect of all this has been the ballooning of student
numbers in Higher Education in the last ten years in many countries from Australia, to South Korea, to
Britain, to Canada and to others.
P2: As numbers rose inexorably, so have costs. Who is to foot the bill? The answer has been
increasingly that costs must be transferred to the individual, as the state sector just does not have the
capacity to fund the expansion that is required. Fees have gone up and will have to continue to rise.
Many people who want access to all that a tertiary education offers have found that they will be faced
with large mountains of debt upon graduation. The question that needs to be asked is whether fee
hikes have discouraged entrance, particularly among those who would suffer the greatest financial
hardship.
P3: The evidence is unclear. Australia and New Zealand were early introducers of increased fees.
The former introduced HECS, which is a combined tuition fee and income-contingent student loan
scheme. The latter introduced and then deregulated student fees. In both cases, participation levels
were largely unaffected by the changes, especially among lower-income families.
P4: A more recent trend has been the adoption of student loan schemes which take the form of soft
loans, popularly tagged "study now, pay later". Many argue that social equity is damaged by the costs;
people from poorer backgrounds will baulk at the costs involved and fail to enrol at universities.
However, some argue that soft loan schemes are more equitable because those who have incurred
debts during their studies stand a greater chance of repaying the loans through increased opportunities
to obtain better-paid jobs.
P5: At a time when many governments are strapped for cash, a shift to "study now, pay later" schemes
will free up funds that could be used to remove barriers at earlier levels of education.

P1: Many countries in the developed and rapidly developing world have come to the realisation that
a far greater number of a country's population need to be at university or other places of higher
education to ensure that their knowledge-based economies can compete with others. At the same time,
there is a strong feeling that universities, traditionally made up of small elites, need to ensure that
disadvantaged groups get equal access. The effect of all this has been the ballooning of student
numbers in Higher Education in the last ten years in many countries from Australia, to South Korea, to
Britain, to Canada and to others.
P2: As numbers rose inexorably, so have costs. Who is to foot the bill? The answer has been
increasingly that costs must be transferred to the individual, as the state sector just does not have the
capacity to fund the expansion that is required. Fees have gone up and will have to continue to rise.
Many people who want access to all that a tertiary education offers have found that they will be faced
with large mountains of debt upon graduation. The question that needs to be asked is whether fee
hikes have discouraged entrance, particularly among those who would suffer the greatest financial
hardship.
P3: The evidence is unclear. Australia and New Zealand were early introducers of increased fees.
The former introduced HECS, which is a combined tuition fee and income-contingent student loan
scheme. The latter introduced and then deregulated student fees. In both cases, participation levels
were largely unaffected by the changes, especially among lower-income families.
P4: A more recent trend has been the adoption of student loan schemes which take the form of soft
loans, popularly tagged "study now, pay later". Many argue that social equity is damaged by the costs;
people from poorer backgrounds will baulk at the costs involved and fail to enrol at universities.
However, some argue that soft loan schemes are more equitable because those who have incurred
debts during their studies stand a greater chance of repaying the loans through increased opportunities
to obtain better-paid jobs.
P5: At a time when many governments are strapped for cash, a shift to "study now, pay later" schemes
will free up funds that could be used to remove barriers at earlier levels of education.

P1: Whales, the largest animals on earth, belong to a family of mammals known as cetaceans. Unlike
fish, whales are warm-blooded, breathe air and give birth to live young. Scientists believe that they
evolved from land mammals with four legs, though they are now supremely adapted to underwater
life. They have excellent hearing and are two to three times more efficient than land mammals at using
oxygen in inhaled air. Whales have collapsible ribcages, which assist them with deep diving, and they
have layers of insulating fat, called blubber, to protect them from the cold.
P2: Whales are difficult creatures to study because they are long-lived, reproduce slowly and most
are highly migratory. Pacific Gray whales, for example, migrate from Alaska to Mexico every year,
traveling about 20,000 kilometres annually. Most whales live to approximately 40 years of age,
though others, such as the Fin, can live to be 90. Bowhead whales may be especially long-lived. In
1993, a large male killed by the Alaskan Inuit was found to have been carrying in its flesh a stone
harpoon point. Since this kind of harpoon is not known to have been in use after 1900, it suggests that
some individual whales of this type may live around the 100 years mark.
P3: Since it is very difficult to count whales accurately (population changes occur very slowly), it is
impossible to tell if a population is growing or shrinking in the course of a few years' study. In fact,
the size of some populations of whales is known no more accurately than plus or minus 50 percent.

P1: Whales, the largest animals on earth, belong to a family of mammals known as cetaceans. Unlike
fish, whales are warm-blooded, breathe air and give birth to live young. Scientists believe that they
evolved from land mammals with four legs, though they are now supremely adapted to underwater
life. They have excellent hearing and are two to three times more efficient than land mammals at using
oxygen in inhaled air. Whales have collapsible ribcages, which assist them with deep diving, and they
have layers of insulating fat, called blubber, to protect them from the cold.
P2: Whales are difficult creatures to study because they are long-lived, reproduce slowly and most
are highly migratory. Pacific Gray whales, for example, migrate from Alaska to Mexico every year,
traveling about 20,000 kilometres annually. Most whales live to approximately 40 years of age,
though others, such as the Fin, can live to be 90. Bowhead whales may be especially long-lived. In
1993, a large male killed by the Alaskan Inuit was found to have been carrying in its flesh a stone
harpoon point. Since this kind of harpoon is not known to have been in use after 1900, it suggests that
some individual whales of this type may live around the 100 years mark.
P3: Since it is very difficult to count whales accurately (population changes occur very slowly), it is
impossible to tell if a population is growing or shrinking in the course of a few years' study. In fact,
the size of some populations of whales is known no more accurately than plus or minus 50 percent.

P1: Whales, the largest animals on earth, belong to a family of mammals known as cetaceans. Unlike
fish, whales are warm-blooded, breathe air and give birth to live young. Scientists believe that they
evolved from land mammals with four legs, though they are now supremely adapted to underwater
life. They have excellent hearing and are two to three times more efficient than land mammals at using
oxygen in inhaled air. Whales have collapsible ribcages, which assist them with deep diving, and they
have layers of insulating fat, called blubber, to protect them from the cold.
P2: Whales are difficult creatures to study because they are long-lived, reproduce slowly and most
are highly migratory. Pacific Gray whales, for example, migrate from Alaska to Mexico every year,
traveling about 20,000 kilometres annually. Most whales live to approximately 40 years of age,
though others, such as the Fin, can live to be 90. Bowhead whales may be especially long-lived. In
1993, a large male killed by the Alaskan Inuit was found to have been carrying in its flesh a stone
harpoon point. Since this kind of harpoon is not known to have been in use after 1900, it suggests that
some individual whales of this type may live around the 100 years mark.
P3: Since it is very difficult to count whales accurately (population changes occur very slowly), it is
impossible to tell if a population is growing or shrinking in the course of a few years' study. In fact,
the size of some populations of whales is known no more accurately than plus or minus 50 percent.

P1: Whales, the largest animals on earth, belong to a family of mammals known as cetaceans. Unlike
fish, whales are warm-blooded, breathe air and give birth to live young. Scientists believe that they
evolved from land mammals with four legs, though they are now supremely adapted to underwater
life. They have excellent hearing and are two to three times more efficient than land mammals at using
oxygen in inhaled air. Whales have collapsible ribcages, which assist them with deep diving, and they
have layers of insulating fat, called blubber, to protect them from the cold.
P2: Whales are difficult creatures to study because they are long-lived, reproduce slowly and most
are highly migratory. Pacific Gray whales, for example, migrate from Alaska to Mexico every year,
traveling about 20,000 kilometres annually. Most whales live to approximately 40 years of age,
though others, such as the Fin, can live to be 90. Bowhead whales may be especially long-lived. In
1993, a large male killed by the Alaskan Inuit was found to have been carrying in its flesh a stone
harpoon point. Since this kind of harpoon is not known to have been in use after 1900, it suggests that
some individual whales of this type may live around the 100 years mark.
P3: Since it is very difficult to count whales accurately (population changes occur very slowly), it is
impossible to tell if a population is growing or shrinking in the course of a few years' study. In fact,
the size of some populations of whales is known no more accurately than plus or minus 50 percent.

P1: Whales, the largest animals on earth, belong to a family of mammals known as cetaceans. Unlike
fish, whales are warm-blooded, breathe air and give birth to live young. Scientists believe that they
evolved from land mammals with four legs, though they are now supremely adapted to underwater
life. They have excellent hearing and are two to three times more efficient than land mammals at using
oxygen in inhaled air. Whales have collapsible ribcages, which assist them with deep diving, and they
have layers of insulating fat, called blubber, to protect them from the cold.
P2: Whales are difficult creatures to study because they are long-lived, reproduce slowly and most
are highly migratory. Pacific Gray whales, for example, migrate from Alaska to Mexico every year,
traveling about 20,000 kilometres annually. Most whales live to approximately 40 years of age,
though others, such as the Fin, can live to be 90. Bowhead whales may be especially long-lived. In
1993, a large male killed by the Alaskan Inuit was found to have been carrying in its flesh a stone
harpoon point. Since this kind of harpoon is not known to have been in use after 1900, it suggests that
some individual whales of this type may live around the 100 years mark.
P3: Since it is very difficult to count whales accurately (population changes occur very slowly), it is
impossible to tell if a population is growing or shrinking in the course of a few years' study. In fact,
the size of some populations of whales is known no more accurately than plus or minus 50 percent.

P1: Whales, the largest animals on earth, belong to a family of mammals known as cetaceans. Unlike
fish, whales are warm-blooded, breathe air and give birth to live young. Scientists believe that they
evolved from land mammals with four legs, though they are now supremely adapted to underwater
life. They have excellent hearing and are two to three times more efficient than land mammals at using
oxygen in inhaled air. Whales have collapsible ribcages, which assist them with deep diving, and they
have layers of insulating fat, called blubber, to protect them from the cold.
P2: Whales are difficult creatures to study because they are long-lived, reproduce slowly and most
are highly migratory. Pacific Gray whales, for example, migrate from Alaska to Mexico every year,
traveling about 20,000 kilometres annually. Most whales live to approximately 40 years of age,
though others, such as the Fin, can live to be 90. Bowhead whales may be especially long-lived. In
1993, a large male killed by the Alaskan Inuit was found to have been carrying in its flesh a stone
harpoon point. Since this kind of harpoon is not known to have been in use after 1900, it suggests that
some individual whales of this type may live around the 100 years mark.
P3: Since it is very difficult to count whales accurately (population changes occur very slowly), it is
impossible to tell if a population is growing or shrinking in the course of a few years' study. In fact,
the size of some populations of whales is known no more accurately than plus or minus 50 percent.

P1: Whales, the largest animals on earth, belong to a family of mammals known as cetaceans. Unlike
fish, whales are warm-blooded, breathe air and give birth to live young. Scientists believe that they
evolved from land mammals with four legs, though they are now supremely adapted to underwater
life. They have excellent hearing and are two to three times more efficient than land mammals at using
oxygen in inhaled air. Whales have collapsible ribcages, which assist them with deep diving, and they
have layers of insulating fat, called blubber, to protect them from the cold.
P2: Whales are difficult creatures to study because they are long-lived, reproduce slowly and most
are highly migratory. Pacific Gray whales, for example, migrate from Alaska to Mexico every year,
traveling about 20,000 kilometres annually. Most whales live to approximately 40 years of age,
though others, such as the Fin, can live to be 90. Bowhead whales may be especially long-lived. In
1993, a large male killed by the Alaskan Inuit was found to have been carrying in its flesh a stone
harpoon point. Since this kind of harpoon is not known to have been in use after 1900, it suggests that
some individual whales of this type may live around the 100 years mark.
P3: Since it is very difficult to count whales accurately (population changes occur very slowly), it is
impossible to tell if a population is growing or shrinking in the course of a few years' study. In fact,
the size of some populations of whales is known no more accurately than plus or minus 50 percent.

P1: Most species of pollen have some level of allergenicity but some are particularly notorious for
inducing symptoms of hay fever. Grass pollen affects about 95% of all hay fever sufferers and birch
tree pollen affects about 20%. Oak tree, plane tree and nettle pollen are also well known for their
allergenic properties.
P2: One of the most allergenic species on an international level is the wind-pollinated ragweed. It
produces a huge amount of pollen - up to 8,000 million pollen grains can be released in just 5 hours
from the giant ragweed species. Wind pollinated plants do tend to produce masses of pollen to ensure
that at least some of it reaches the right target.
P3: The majority of flowering plants are insect-pollinated and so their pollen does not need to be
dispersed on the wind and they therefore produce smaller quantities of it. The pollen from these
insect-pollinated species is often sticky to adhere to the bodies of insects and can form clumps
making it visible to the eye, which often makes people assume that this is the pollen type causing their
symptoms. While such pollen does have allergenic properties, the chances of it reaching the nose are
usually slim. So, it is the wind-pollinated species with their insignificant flowers (usually greenyyellow and small) producing millions of pollen grains that mainly cause the hay fever symptoms and
trigger asthma in those susceptible.

P1: Most species of pollen have some level of allergenicity but some are particularly notorious for
inducing symptoms of hay fever. Grass pollen affects about 95% of all hay fever sufferers and birch
tree pollen affects about 20%. Oak tree, plane tree and nettle pollen are also well known for their
allergenic properties.
P2: One of the most allergenic species on an international level is the wind-pollinated ragweed. It
produces a huge amount of pollen - up to 8,000 million pollen grains can be released in just 5 hours
from the giant ragweed species. Wind pollinated plants do tend to produce masses of pollen to ensure
that at least some of it reaches the right target.
P3: The majority of flowering plants are insect-pollinated and so their pollen does not need to be
dispersed on the wind and they therefore produce smaller quantities of it. The pollen from these
insect-pollinated species is often sticky to adhere to the bodies of insects and can form clumps
making it visible to the eye, which often makes people assume that this is the pollen type causing their
symptoms. While such pollen does have allergenic properties, the chances of it reaching the nose are
usually slim. So, it is the wind-pollinated species with their insignificant flowers (usually greenyyellow and small) producing millions of pollen grains that mainly cause the hay fever symptoms and
trigger asthma in those susceptible.

P1: Most species of pollen have some level of allergenicity but some are particularly notorious for
inducing symptoms of hay fever. Grass pollen affects about 95% of all hay fever sufferers and birch
tree pollen affects about 20%. Oak tree, plane tree and nettle pollen are also well known for their
allergenic properties.
P2: One of the most allergenic species on an international level is the wind-pollinated ragweed. It
produces a huge amount of pollen - up to 8,000 million pollen grains can be released in just 5 hours
from the giant ragweed species. Wind pollinated plants do tend to produce masses of pollen to ensure
that at least some of it reaches the right target.
P3: The majority of flowering plants are insect-pollinated and so their pollen does not need to be
dispersed on the wind and they therefore produce smaller quantities of it. The pollen from these
insect-pollinated species is often sticky to adhere to the bodies of insects and can form clumps
making it visible to the eye, which often makes people assume that this is the pollen type causing their
symptoms. While such pollen does have allergenic properties, the chances of it reaching the nose are
usually slim. So, it is the wind-pollinated species with their insignificant flowers (usually greenyyellow and small) producing millions of pollen grains that mainly cause the hay fever symptoms and
trigger asthma in those susceptible.

P1: Most species of pollen have some level of allergenicity but some are particularly notorious for
inducing symptoms of hay fever. Grass pollen affects about 95% of all hay fever sufferers and birch
tree pollen affects about 20%. Oak tree, plane tree and nettle pollen are also well known for their
allergenic properties.
P2: One of the most allergenic species on an international level is the wind-pollinated ragweed. It
produces a huge amount of pollen - up to 8,000 million pollen grains can be released in just 5 hours
from the giant ragweed species. Wind pollinated plants do tend to produce masses of pollen to ensure
that at least some of it reaches the right target.
P3: The majority of flowering plants are insect-pollinated and so their pollen does not need to be
dispersed on the wind and they therefore produce smaller quantities of it. The pollen from these
insect-pollinated species is often sticky to adhere to the bodies of insects and can form clumps
making it visible to the eye, which often makes people assume that this is the pollen type causing their
symptoms. While such pollen does have allergenic properties, the chances of it reaching the nose are
usually slim. So, it is the wind-pollinated species with their insignificant flowers (usually greenyyellow and small) producing millions of pollen grains that mainly cause the hay fever symptoms and
trigger asthma in those susceptible.

P1: Most species of pollen have some level of allergenicity but some are particularly notorious for
inducing symptoms of hay fever. Grass pollen affects about 95% of all hay fever sufferers and birch
tree pollen affects about 20%. Oak tree, plane tree and nettle pollen are also well known for their
allergenic properties.
P2: One of the most allergenic species on an international level is the wind-pollinated ragweed. It
produces a huge amount of pollen - up to 8,000 million pollen grains can be released in just 5 hours
from the giant ragweed species. Wind pollinated plants do tend to produce masses of pollen to ensure
that at least some of it reaches the right target.
P3: The majority of flowering plants are insect-pollinated and so their pollen does not need to be
dispersed on the wind and they therefore produce smaller quantities of it. The pollen from these
insect-pollinated species is often sticky to adhere to the bodies of insects and can form clumps
making it visible to the eye, which often makes people assume that this is the pollen type causing their
symptoms. While such pollen does have allergenic properties, the chances of it reaching the nose are
usually slim. So, it is the wind-pollinated species with their insignificant flowers (usually greenyyellow and small) producing millions of pollen grains that mainly cause the hay fever symptoms and
trigger asthma in those susceptible.

P1: Most species of pollen have some level of allergenicity but some are particularly notorious for
inducing symptoms of hay fever. Grass pollen affects about 95% of all hay fever sufferers and birch
tree pollen affects about 20%. Oak tree, plane tree and nettle pollen are also well known for their
allergenic properties.
P2: One of the most allergenic species on an international level is the wind-pollinated ragweed. It
produces a huge amount of pollen - up to 8,000 million pollen grains can be released in just 5 hours
from the giant ragweed species. Wind pollinated plants do tend to produce masses of pollen to ensure
that at least some of it reaches the right target.
P3: The majority of flowering plants are insect-pollinated and so their pollen does not need to be
dispersed on the wind and they therefore produce smaller quantities of it. The pollen from these
insect-pollinated species is often sticky to adhere to the bodies of insects and can form clumps
making it visible to the eye, which often makes people assume that this is the pollen type causing their
symptoms. While such pollen does have allergenic properties, the chances of it reaching the nose are
usually slim. So, it is the wind-pollinated species with their insignificant flowers (usually greenyyellow and small) producing millions of pollen grains that mainly cause the hay fever symptoms and
trigger asthma in those susceptible.

P1: Cold-water coral can live as deep as 2000m below the ocean surface, well beyond the reach of
sunlight and where the temperature can be as low as 4°C.
P2: Despite their dark, chilly location, these reefs are every bit as beautiful as their tropical
counterparts. The Lophelia pertusa reefs off the coasts of Scotland, Ireland, and Norway, for example,
grow as delicate branches ranging in colour from orange to pink to white. Like tropical reefs, they are
home to a multitude of other animals, including starfish, sea urchins, anemones, sponges, worms, and
crabs. They are also likely to be important spawning and nursery grounds for several fish species,
including commercially valuable ones.
P3: Their biology is, however, very different. Tropical corals get most of their food from symbiotic
algae, which create energy from photosynthesis. Sunlight doesn't reach the areas where cold-water
coral grows, so instead, these corals feed by scooping up microscopic organisms and food particles
that drift past. Cold-water corals are also incredibly slow growing: it can take 400 years for a coral
tree to become just 2cm thick. The largest reefs discovered so far are up to 3km wide and 45km long
and are at least 4,500 years old - amongst the oldest living systems on the planet.
P4: Although fishermen have known of their existence for a long time, it's only in the last decade or
so that scientists have really started to study cold-water coral. They have been found around the
world, from the Bering Sea and northern Europe to Florida, the Galapagos Islands, the southern
Pacific, and even Antarctica. Most deep-water reefs are poorly mapped, and it is likely that many
more remain to be discovered. Many mysteries remain even for the best-studied reefs, including the
details of how the corals feed and reproduce.

P1: Cold-water coral can live as deep as 2000m below the ocean surface, well beyond the reach of
sunlight and where the temperature can be as low as 4°C.
P2: Despite their dark, chilly location, these reefs are every bit as beautiful as their tropical
counterparts. The Lophelia pertusa reefs off the coasts of Scotland, Ireland, and Norway, for example,
grow as delicate branches ranging in colour from orange to pink to white. Like tropical reefs, they are
home to a multitude of other animals, including starfish, sea urchins, anemones, sponges, worms, and
crabs. They are also likely to be important spawning and nursery grounds for several fish species,
including commercially valuable ones.
P3: Their biology is, however, very different. Tropical corals get most of their food from symbiotic
algae, which create energy from photosynthesis. Sunlight doesn't reach the areas where cold-water
coral grows, so instead, these corals feed by scooping up microscopic organisms and food particles
that drift past. Cold-water corals are also incredibly slow growing: it can take 400 years for a coral
tree to become just 2cm thick. The largest reefs discovered so far are up to 3km wide and 45km long
and are at least 4,500 years old - amongst the oldest living systems on the planet.
P4: Although fishermen have known of their existence for a long time, it's only in the last decade or
so that scientists have really started to study cold-water coral. They have been found around the
world, from the Bering Sea and northern Europe to Florida, the Galapagos Islands, the southern
Pacific, and even Antarctica. Most deep-water reefs are poorly mapped, and it is likely that many
more remain to be discovered. Many mysteries remain even for the best-studied reefs, including the
details of how the corals feed and reproduce.

P1: Cold-water coral can live as deep as 2000m below the ocean surface, well beyond the reach of
sunlight and where the temperature can be as low as 4°C.
P2: Despite their dark, chilly location, these reefs are every bit as beautiful as their tropical
counterparts. The Lophelia pertusa reefs off the coasts of Scotland, Ireland, and Norway, for example,
grow as delicate branches ranging in colour from orange to pink to white. Like tropical reefs, they are
home to a multitude of other animals, including starfish, sea urchins, anemones, sponges, worms, and
crabs. They are also likely to be important spawning and nursery grounds for several fish species,
including commercially valuable ones.
P3: Their biology is, however, very different. Tropical corals get most of their food from symbiotic
algae, which create energy from photosynthesis. Sunlight doesn't reach the areas where cold-water
coral grows, so instead, these corals feed by scooping up microscopic organisms and food particles
that drift past. Cold-water corals are also incredibly slow growing: it can take 400 years for a coral
tree to become just 2cm thick. The largest reefs discovered so far are up to 3km wide and 45km long
and are at least 4,500 years old - amongst the oldest living systems on the planet.
P4: Although fishermen have known of their existence for a long time, it's only in the last decade or
so that scientists have really started to study cold-water coral. They have been found around the
world, from the Bering Sea and northern Europe to Florida, the Galapagos Islands, the southern
Pacific, and even Antarctica. Most deep-water reefs are poorly mapped, and it is likely that many
more remain to be discovered. Many mysteries remain even for the best-studied reefs, including the
details of how the corals feed and reproduce.

P1: Cold-water coral can live as deep as 2000m below the ocean surface, well beyond the reach of
sunlight and where the temperature can be as low as 4°C.
P2: Despite their dark, chilly location, these reefs are every bit as beautiful as their tropical
counterparts. The Lophelia pertusa reefs off the coasts of Scotland, Ireland, and Norway, for example,
grow as delicate branches ranging in colour from orange to pink to white. Like tropical reefs, they are
home to a multitude of other animals, including starfish, sea urchins, anemones, sponges, worms, and
crabs. They are also likely to be important spawning and nursery grounds for several fish species,
including commercially valuable ones.
P3: Their biology is, however, very different. Tropical corals get most of their food from symbiotic
algae, which create energy from photosynthesis. Sunlight doesn't reach the areas where cold-water
coral grows, so instead, these corals feed by scooping up microscopic organisms and food particles
that drift past. Cold-water corals are also incredibly slow growing: it can take 400 years for a coral
tree to become just 2cm thick. The largest reefs discovered so far are up to 3km wide and 45km long
and are at least 4,500 years old - amongst the oldest living systems on the planet.
P4: Although fishermen have known of their existence for a long time, it's only in the last decade or
so that scientists have really started to study cold-water coral. They have been found around the
world, from the Bering Sea and northern Europe to Florida, the Galapagos Islands, the southern
Pacific, and even Antarctica. Most deep-water reefs are poorly mapped, and it is likely that many
more remain to be discovered. Many mysteries remain even for the best-studied reefs, including the
details of how the corals feed and reproduce.

P1: Cold-water coral can live as deep as 2000m below the ocean surface, well beyond the reach of
sunlight and where the temperature can be as low as 4°C.
P2: Despite their dark, chilly location, these reefs are every bit as beautiful as their tropical
counterparts. The Lophelia pertusa reefs off the coasts of Scotland, Ireland, and Norway, for example,
grow as delicate branches ranging in colour from orange to pink to white. Like tropical reefs, they are
home to a multitude of other animals, including starfish, sea urchins, anemones, sponges, worms, and
crabs. They are also likely to be important spawning and nursery grounds for several fish species,
including commercially valuable ones.
P3: Their biology is, however, very different. Tropical corals get most of their food from symbiotic
algae, which create energy from photosynthesis. Sunlight doesn't reach the areas where cold-water
coral grows, so instead, these corals feed by scooping up microscopic organisms and food particles
that drift past. Cold-water corals are also incredibly slow growing: it can take 400 years for a coral
tree to become just 2cm thick. The largest reefs discovered so far are up to 3km wide and 45km long
and are at least 4,500 years old - amongst the oldest living systems on the planet.
P4: Although fishermen have known of their existence for a long time, it's only in the last decade or
so that scientists have really started to study cold-water coral. They have been found around the
world, from the Bering Sea and northern Europe to Florida, the Galapagos Islands, the southern
Pacific, and even Antarctica. Most deep-water reefs are poorly mapped, and it is likely that many
more remain to be discovered. Many mysteries remain even for the best-studied reefs, including the
details of how the corals feed and reproduce.

P1: Cold-water coral can live as deep as 2000m below the ocean surface, well beyond the reach of
sunlight and where the temperature can be as low as 4°C.
P2: Despite their dark, chilly location, these reefs are every bit as beautiful as their tropical
counterparts. The Lophelia pertusa reefs off the coasts of Scotland, Ireland, and Norway, for example,
grow as delicate branches ranging in colour from orange to pink to white. Like tropical reefs, they are
home to a multitude of other animals, including starfish, sea urchins, anemones, sponges, worms, and
crabs. They are also likely to be important spawning and nursery grounds for several fish species,
including commercially valuable ones.
P3: Their biology is, however, very different. Tropical corals get most of their food from symbiotic
algae, which create energy from photosynthesis. Sunlight doesn't reach the areas where cold-water
coral grows, so instead, these corals feed by scooping up microscopic organisms and food particles
that drift past. Cold-water corals are also incredibly slow growing: it can take 400 years for a coral
tree to become just 2cm thick. The largest reefs discovered so far are up to 3km wide and 45km long
and are at least 4,500 years old - amongst the oldest living systems on the planet.
P4: Although fishermen have known of their existence for a long time, it's only in the last decade or
so that scientists have really started to study cold-water coral. They have been found around the
world, from the Bering Sea and northern Europe to Florida, the Galapagos Islands, the southern
Pacific, and even Antarctica. Most deep-water reefs are poorly mapped, and it is likely that many
more remain to be discovered. Many mysteries remain even for the best-studied reefs, including the
details of how the corals feed and reproduce.